Invisible poison from “field to fork”: PFAS penetrates the food chain and threatens human health

“Permanent chemicals” such as PFAS can spread through agricultural soil, groundwater and the food chain, and enter the human body through fruits, vegetables, seafood and livestock products. Its bioaccumulation and health risks have increasingly attracted international attention, and supervision and protection need to be strengthened.

Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large class of synthetic organofluorine compounds that are widely used in various industries due to their unique physical and chemical properties, such as water and oil resistance1. These chemicals possess a carbon chain skeleton composed of strong carbon-fluorine bonds, giving them exceptional stability2. Thousands of different PFAS exist, varying in carbon chain length and functional groups1. PFAS have been used in numerous industrial and consumer products since the 1940s3。

Because there are so many types of PFAS and their properties vary, it is extremely challenging to conduct comprehensive research and develop unified regulations for all of these substances. Most research tends to focus on a handful of well-known and widely used PFAS, such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), resulting in significant knowledge gaps regarding the thousands of other PFAS5. The historical and continued widespread use of PFAS in everything from firefighting foams to non-stick pans and textiles has resulted in their ubiquity in the environment4。

One of the most concerning properties of PFAS is its extreme persistence in the environment. Because the carbon-fluorine bond is very stable, PFAS is difficult to break down, so it is called a “forever chemical”1. They have a high degree of mobility in a variety of environmental media such as air, water and soil4. Additionally, PFAS have the potential to accumulate in organisms and biomagnify in the food chain4. The combination of persistence, migration, and bioaccumulation makes PFAS a significant and ongoing environmental and health problem6. These chemicals do not break down easily and can persist and accumulate in the environment for long periods of time, posing long-term threats to ecosystems and human health.

This report aims to shed light on the main pathways by which PFAS enter the food chain, including farmland contamination, groundwater contamination and bioaccumulation. The report will detail how PFAS are passed through the food chain, ultimately affecting human health. This analysis will be based on reliable academic research and reputable website content, excluding news reports, private company information and Chinese-language materials.

The fundamental reason for PFAS’s persistence is its unique chemical structure. The perfluoroalkyl moiety has extremely strong carbon-fluorine bonds and is highly fluorinated, making it extremely difficult to degrade in the environment and biological metabolism.8. European chemicals regulations classify most PFAS as very persistent (vP)8. While a very small number of PFAS may have specific structural combinations that allow them to be mineralized, this is extremely rare8. The scientific consensus is that the vast majority of PFAS are not fully mineralized under natural conditions, making them among the most persistent organic substances known in the environment8. This inherent resistance to decomposition means that once PFAS are released into the environment, they will persist for long periods of time, leading to ongoing pollution accumulation.

There are several primary pathways by which PFAS migrate through the environment:

• Atmospheric transport and deposition: PFAS can be released into the air through industrial emissions, firefighting activities (especially the use of aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF)), and the agitation of contaminated water13. In the air, volatile PFAS precursors exist primarily in gaseous form and can be transported over long distances13. Ionic PFAS, such as PFOA and PFOS, tend to attach to aerosols and other particles in the air and are carried by the wind13. Airborne PFAS can be removed from the atmosphere through wet deposition (wash-off by rain or snow) and dry deposition (particle settling or gas diffusion to surfaces)13. This subsidence can contaminate soil and surface water, even in areas far from the original source of pollution13. Atmospheric deposition is an important pathway for the widespread distribution of PFAS, affecting even areas far from direct sources of pollution13。
• Leaching from soil and vadose zone: PFAS present in unsaturated soils can be transported downward (leached) by precipitation, irrigation, and flooding events13. This process allows PFAS to move from surface soil to the water table and potentially reach surface water bodies13. The extent of leaching is affected by many factors, including water permeability, thickness of the vadose zone, and properties of the PFAS (e.g., solubility, carbon chain length)13. PFAS can be retained in the vadose zone by partitioning into the solid phase (soil particles), adsorption at the air-water interface, and partitioning into non-aqueous phase liquids (NAPL) if present13. Longer chain PFAS are more likely to be retained than short chain PFAS13. The movement of water through soil is a key mechanism for transferring contaminated PFAS at the surface to deeper underground aquifers13。
• Groundwater flow: Once PFAS reach the saturation zone (groundwater), they migrate with the flow of groundwater13. The rate and direction of migration are affected by aquifer characteristics (e.g. geology, permeability)13. The migration of PFAS in groundwater may be slowed (retarded) by adsorption to aquifer materials (soil and sediment)13. Short-chain PFAS are generally more mobile in groundwater due to weaker adsorption13. Diffusion of PFAS in groundwater into the pore spaces of low-permeability materials may result in long-term persistence of PFAS in groundwater13. Groundwater is a major conduit for PFAS transmission, potentially contaminating drinking water sources and irrigated farmland13。
• Surface water transport: PFAS can enter surface waters through direct emissions, runoff from contaminated soils, atmospheric deposition, or groundwater discharges13. Once in surface waters, PFAS can be transported downstream with water flow13. PFAS can be partitioned between surface waters and sediments13. Some PFAS can accumulate at the air-water interface of surface waters and form PFAS-containing foams under agitation (e.g., wind, waves), which can be transported by wind or currents13. Surface water bodies can both receive and transmit PFAS, becoming a pathway for contamination of aquatic organisms and potentially irrigated farmland13。

Agricultural land can be contaminated with PFAS in a variety of ways:

• Using PFAS-contaminated water for irrigation: Groundwater contaminated from industrial sources or firefighting foam can be used for irrigation, introducing PFAS into the soil16. Surface water contaminated from various sources can also be used for irrigation17. Using contaminated water for irrigation can transfer PFAS directly from the water source into farm soil, posing a risk to crops and livestock16。
• Applying sewage sludge and biosolids containing PFAS: Sewage sludge is a by-product of sewage treatment and often contains PFAS from industrial and household emissions16. Applying biosolids (treated sewage sludge used as fertilizer) to farmland introduces PFAS into agricultural soils4. Wastewater treatment plants are not effective at removing PFAS16. Biosolids application is an important and widespread pathway for PFAS contamination of farmland, often unintentionally because farmers are unaware of the contamination.16。
• Atmospheric deposition of PFAS: PFAS released into the atmosphere from industrial facilities can be deposited on farmland through wet and dry deposition14. Background levels of PFAS are likely present in most soils due to atmospheric deposition15. Areas near industrial facilities may experience higher levels of atmospheric deposition14. Atmospheric deposition contributes to localized and widespread PFAS contamination of farmland soils14。

PFAS contamination can adversely affect soil health and disrupt soil microbial communities17. This disrupts basic soil functions such as organic matter decomposition and nutrient availability17. Long-chain PFAS like PFOS may reduce the activity of enzymes critical to nutrient cycling17. PFOS has also been found to negatively impact water-stable soil aggregates that are critical for maintaining soil structure and preventing erosion17. PFAS contamination can have harmful effects on crop growth and overall soil quality by disrupting microbial activity and nutrient cycling17。

PFAS in groundwater can come from a variety of sources:

• Industrial emissions from manufacturing facilities that produce or use PFAS2。
• Use of Aqueous Film-Forming Foam Fire Fighting Agents (AFFF) at fire training ranges, airports, military bases and other locations2。
• Leachate from landfills that accept PFAS-containing waste and sewage sludge5。
• Wastewater treatment plants as passive receivers of PFAS from various sources30。
• Accidental releases and spills of substances containing PFAS30。
• Atmospheric sedimentation then seeps into groundwater14。

Sources of groundwater contamination are widespread, reflecting widespread use and disposal of PFAS2。

Contaminated groundwater plays a critical role in the PFAS pollution cycle:

• Irrigated farmland: Contaminated groundwater can be used as a source of irrigation water, leading to the accumulation of PFAS in farm soil and crops16。
• Drinking water source: PFAS-contaminated groundwater can directly impact drinking water supplies from public water systems and private wells2。
• Discharge to surface waters: Contaminated groundwater can be discharged into surface water bodies, further spreading PFAS contamination12。

Contaminated groundwater is a key link in the PFAS pollution cycle, affecting agricultural production and human health through drinking water consumption2。

The process by which PFAS bioaccumulates in the food chain is as follows:

• Absorption and accumulation by plants: Plants absorb PFAS from contaminated soil and water primarily through their roots12. Long-chain PFAS tend to remain in roots, while short-chain PFAS can be transported to above-ground tissues35. Bioaccumulation factors (BAF) vary widely between different plant species and different parts of the plant20. Roots usually have the highest BAF, followed by stems and leaves, then grains35. Leafy and root vegetables tend to have higher BAF than fruit and seed vegetables20. Grains generally show the least accumulation of PFAS20. Absorption is affected by soil properties, PFAS type and plant species35. The extent of PFAS uptake and accumulation in plants is complex and depends on many factors, resulting in varying levels of contamination in different crops and plant parts.20。
• Bioaccumulation of invertebrates: Aquatic invertebrates can accumulate PFAS from water and sediments13. Bioaccumulation varies by species42. Sediment organic carbon content affects bioaccumulation43. Terrestrial invertebrates accumulate PFAS through soil and diet (plants, other invertebrates)13. Different taxa accumulate different PFAS, which may be related to dietary differences37. Short-chain PFAS tend to be more abundant in herbivorous invertebrates37. Invertebrates play a role in food chain transfer of PFAS, with accumulation patterns varying by species, habitat and diet13。
• Bioaccumulation in fish: Fish accumulate PFAS from water and sediments through multiple pathways, including ingestion of contaminated prey1. PFAS are proteophilic and tend to accumulate in protein-rich tissues such as muscle, liver, and blood45. Biomagnification occurs in aquatic food webs, with higher concentrations found in fish at higher trophic levels (carnivorous fish)13. PFOS is known to biomagnify45. Bioaccumulation potential varies among fish species and depends on the specific PFAS45. Cooking does not eliminate most PFAS in fish45. Fish, especially predatory fish, can accumulate high concentrations of PFAS, making fish consumption an important route of human exposure1。
• Bioaccumulation in mammals: Mammals, including livestock, can accumulate PFAS through ingestion of contaminated feed and water13. Grazing on contaminated land is another approach58. Long-chain PFAS tend to accumulate more in mammals49. PFAS accumulates in the blood and protein-rich tissues such as the liver and kidneys49. Also found in milk20. Poultry may metabolize PFAS faster than mammals49. Bioaccumulation varies among different PFAS and animal species49. Marine mammals, especially top predators, show high levels of PFAS accumulation, suggesting biomagnification in marine food webs52. Livestock raised on contaminated land or fed contaminated feed and water can accumulate PFAS, resulting in potential human exposure to PFAS through the consumption of meat, dairy products, and eggs13。

The main route of human exposure to PFAS is through dietary intake of contaminated food and water4. This includes consuming crops grown in contaminated soil or irrigated with contaminated water1;Eating animal products (meat, dairy, eggs) from livestock exposed to PFAS1; and eating seafood, especially fish from polluted waters1. Interconnected environmental pollution and agricultural practices result in widespread human exposure to PFAS through diet4。

Humans may also be exposed to PFAS through other routes, including directly consuming contaminated drinking water2; Ingesting food packaged in materials containing PFAS1; Accidental ingestion of household dust containing PFAS from consumer products4; Hand and mouth contact with PFAS-treated products4;breathing indoor air containing volatile PFAS precursors4; and occupational exposure in industries that produce or use PFAS4. While dietary intake is the primary route, humans can be exposed to PFAS through a variety of other routes, highlighting the ubiquity of these chemicals in modern life1。

Table 1: Major PFAS exposure routes and sources

Route of exposure	primary source	Related fragments
eating contaminated food	Crops grown in contaminated soil, fish from contaminated waters, meat/dairy/eggs from livestock exposed to PFAS	1, 17, 18, 20, 45, 46, 49, 38, 20, 29, 34, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 50, 51, 1, 4, 5
Drinking contaminated drinking water	Public water systems, private wells	62, 11, 32, 2, 3, 4, 5, 12, 11, 14, 5, 50, 4, 5, 11
Eating food packaged in materials that contain PFAS	Fast food containers, microwave popcorn bags, pizza boxes	32, 5, 1, 4, 5, 11
Accidental ingestion of household dust	PFAS treated furniture, carpets	4, 5, 4, 5, 11
Products that come into contact with hands and mouth	PFAS-treated fabrics, cosmetics	4, 5, 4, 5, 11
Breathing in room air	Volatile PFAS precursors from consumer products	11, 4, 5, 11, 4, 5, 11
occupational exposure	PFAS manufacturing or using industries	62, 5, 5, 4, 5, 11

 

Scientific research shows that exposure to certain PFAS may have a variety of adverse effects on human health:

• Carcinogenic effects: Epidemiological studies suggest PFAS exposure is associated with increased risk of kidney and testicular cancer5. PFOA has been classified as a human carcinogen and PFOS has been classified as a probable human carcinogen67. It is currently being studied for its potential association with other cancers, including prostate, breast, ovarian, endometrial, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and thyroid cancer5. Strong evidence linking exposure to certain PFAS (PFOA, PFOS) and certain cancers, raising serious public health concerns5。
• Immunotoxicity: PFAS exposure suppresses the immune system and reduces the body’s ability to fight infection5. This is associated with reduced antibody responses to vaccines in children (diphtheria, tetanus, rubella, measles)5, and may increase children’s susceptibility to infectious diseases, including respiratory infections and gastroenteritis62. PFOS and PFOA are considered immunological hazards to humans69. The immunotoxic effects of PFAS, especially in children, may have significant public health implications, potentially reducing vaccine efficacy and increasing the risk of infection5。
• Reproductive and Developmental Effects: Exposure to PFAS during pregnancy linked to lower birth weight4. This is associated with developmental effects or delays in children, including early puberty and skeletal variations5. PFAS may interfere with hormones, affecting thyroid and sex hormones5, damage to sperm and the male reproductive system (decreased sperm quantity and quality)74, leading to gestational hypertension and preeclampsia4, shortens breastfeeding time and may damage breast development74, prolongs pregnancy, which is an indicator of fertility74, and have different effects on male and female pubertal development76. PFAS exposure can have widespread adverse effects on reproductive health and child development, highlighting the vulnerability of these life stages4。

Other health problems: PFAS exposure is also linked to elevated cholesterol levels4, increased risk of thyroid disease and dysfunction4, liver enzyme changes and potential liver damage5, lipid and insulin disorders63, kidney disease and decreased kidney function63, increased risk of obesity and metabolic disorders5, elevated uric acid levels63 and potential links to type 2 diabetes.61 and a host of other health problems. In addition to cancer, immune and reproductive effects, PFAS exposure has been linked to a range of other health problems affecting various organ systems and metabolic processes4。

Table 2: Summary of major human health effects associated with PFAS exposure

health effects	Specific PFAS of interest	strength of evidence	Related fragments
kidney cancer	PFOA	sufficient evidence	62, 63, 64, 63, 65, 66, 67, 5
testicular cancer	PFOA	evidence of connection	62, 63, 64, 63, 65, 66, 67, 5
increased cholesterol levels	PFOA, PFOS, PFNA, PFDA	evidence of connection	4, 5, 65, 66, 80, 5
Decreased antibody response to vaccine	PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS, PFDA	evidence of connection	62, 65, 66, 69, 70, 71, 5
slight decrease in birth weight	PFOA, PFOS	evidence of connection	4, 5, 65, 66, 74, 75, 76, 5
High blood pressure or preeclampsia during pregnancy	PFOA, PFOS	evidence of connection	4, 5, 65, 66, 74, 5
Liver enzyme changes	PFOA, PFOS, PFHxS	evidence of connection	62, 63, 53, 5, 20, 61, 65, 66, 71, 5

 

After PFAS are released into the environment from industrial activities and consumer products, they persist due to their strong chemical bonds. These persistent chemicals contaminate farmland through irrigation of affected water, application of biosolids containing PFAS, and atmospheric deposition. Groundwater systems are contaminated by industrial emissions, firefighting foam and landfills and become a source of drinking water and agricultural irrigation. PFAS bioaccumulate in plants, invertebrates, fish, and mammals, causing their transfer through the food chain. Humans are exposed to PFAS primarily through the consumption of contaminated food (crops, animal products, seafood) and drinking water. Pathways of PFAS contamination are interconnected, forming a complex network that leads to widespread human exposure through the food chain1。

The persistence and bioaccumulation of PFAS means pollution can persist for decades even as emissions decrease. Long-term exposure to low levels of PFAS can still pose serious health risks. Reversing PFAS contamination in the environment is technically challenging and costly. The persistence of PFAS contamination requires long-term monitoring, research, and aggressive mitigation strategies to protect human and environmental health4。

Addressing the PFAS problem requires a multifaceted approach, including continued scientific research to better understand the health effects of different PFAS and their mechanisms of action; the need for comprehensive monitoring programs to assess the extent of contamination in various environmental media and food sources; the need for effective mitigation strategies to reduce the release of PFAS, prevent further contamination and remediate existing contamination; and the need to develop and implement regulatory frameworks to control the use of PFAS and limit human exposure.1。

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