Industrial “universal additives” turn into environmental nightmare: PFAS pollution spreads across industries and continues for decades, which is difficult to solve

PFAS is widely used in the textile, electronics, fire protection, chemical and food packaging industries. Its refractory properties lead to long-term pollution of soil, water and air, posing a profound threat to the human body and ecology. The international community is strengthening supervision and looking for alternatives.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a large class of man-made chemicals that have been commercially produced and widely used since the 1940s1. PFAS find applications in a variety of industrial and consumer products due to their unique physical and chemical properties, including excellent thermal and chemical stability, water and oil repellency, and surfactant properties1.However, these same properties also lead to serious environmental problems. Many PFAS are extremely difficult to break down in the environment, are persistent, and may accumulate in organisms, causing potentially harmful effects to humans and ecosystems5This report aims to analyze the major industries that have most commonly used PFAS since the 1940s and explore how these chemicals are released into the environment during manufacturing processes, causing long-term contamination.

Since the 1940s, PFAS have been widely used by multiple industries to take advantage of their unique properties1. Some of the major industries include:

• Textile industry: PFAS are widely used as water, stain and oil repellents in a variety of textiles including clothing, carpets and upholstery8.
• Fire protection industry: Firefighting foams, specifically aqueous film-forming foam (AFFF), contain PFAS and are used to extinguish flammable liquid fires11.
• Chemical manufacturing industry: PFAS is used as a processing aid and monomer in the production of fluoropolymers such as polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)4.
• Electronics and Semiconductor Industry: PFAS is used in etching, cleaning processes and specialty coatings on electronic components15.
• Paper and packaging industry: PFAS is used in food contact materials to provide oil and water repellency18.

These industries rely heavily on PFAS to achieve specific product performance and manufacturing efficiencies, leading to widespread use of these chemicals and consequent environmental pollution.

Across the major industries mentioned above, PFAS are used at different stages of the manufacturing process and serve a variety of functions:

• Textile industry: PFAS are primarily applied to textile surfaces as finishing agents to render them water-, oil-, and stain-resistant properties9. These chemicals are usually applied at the final stage of the production process, as a coating or impregnation treatment.
• Fire protection industry: In AFFF, PFAS acts as a surfactant, reducing the surface tension of the foam, allowing it to quickly spread and cover the surface of flammable liquids, effectively suppressing flames and preventing re-ignition11.
• Chemical manufacturing industry: In the production of fluoropolymers, such as PTFE, PFAS such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) are used as processing aids in emulsion polymerization to facilitate the reaction and control the particle size of the polymer4.These PFAS are often present as residues in final products.
• Electronics and Semiconductor Industry: PFAS are used in a variety of applications in semiconductor manufacturing, including as etchants to create fine patterns on wafers, as cleaners to remove contaminants, and as specialty coatings to provide desired electrical or physical properties15.
• Paper and packaging industry: PFAS are added to paper pulp or applied as coatings to paper and paperboard products to provide oil and water repellency, which is critical for food packaging applications18.

These uses highlight the critical role of PFAS as coatings, additives and surfactants in a variety of manufacturing processes, which directly contributes to their widespread release into the environment.

Manufacturing processes in these industries release PFAS into the environment through multiple pathways:

• Wastewater discharge: Industrial facilities often discharge wastewater containing PFAS to surface waters or wastewater treatment plants20. Traditional wastewater treatment methods often fail to effectively remove PFAS, causing these chemicals to end up in rivers, lakes, and oceans23. For example, textile factories discharge wastewater containing PFAS during dyeing and finishing processes20.
• Air emissions: During the production and use of PFAS, they may be emitted into the air as gases or attached to particulate matter20. These air pollutants can be deposited into soil and water bodies through wet and dry deposition, causing pollution even in areas far away from the pollution source.21.
• Solid waste disposal: Industrial waste and consumer products containing PFAS end up in landfills20. PFAS can leach from these wastes, contaminating soil and groundwater27.
• Accidental leaks and spills: During the production, transportation and use of PFAS, accidental leaks and spills may occur, directly contaminating soil and water bodies19. Accidental releases of firefighting foam (AFFF), especially during training, are a significant source of PFAS contamination11.
• Using products containing PFAS: Consumer use of products containing PFAS, such as waterproof clothing and non-stick cookware, can also result in the release of PFAS into the environment, for example through wear and tear during laundering and discharge into wastewater20.

Together, these emission pathways contribute to the widespread presence of PFAS in the global environment.

PFAS contamination caused by manufacturing processes in these industries affects a variety of environmental media, ranging from areas near factories to broader geographic areas:

• Soil pollution: PFAS can accumulate in soil around industrial facilities and in agricultural soil where sewage sludge containing PFAS has been applied21. PFAS in soil can be absorbed by plants and enter the food chain29.
• Groundwater contamination: PFAS are highly water-soluble and can easily seep into the ground, contaminating groundwater aquifers21. Groundwater contamination is a major problem in drinking water sources, especially near industrial areas31.
• Surface water pollution: Industrial wastewater discharges, runoff from contaminated soil, and the use of firefighting foams containing PFAS can all contribute to the contamination of surface water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and wetlands21. PFAS in surface waters can affect aquatic life and may be ingested through drinking water or eating contaminated aquatic life31.
• Air pollution: PFAS can be present in the air as gases or particulate matter, especially near manufacturing facilities21. PFAS in the air can settle into soil and water, causing further contamination25.

The scope of contamination can be very wide, from localized hot spots around a factory to wider geographic areas affecting entire watersheds or even the globe.25.The persistence of PFAS means that once an environment is contaminated, these chemicals may persist for a long time.

A distinguishing feature of PFAS is their extremely high persistence in the environment5.The carbon-fluorine bond is very strong, making PFAS resistant to environmental and metabolic degradation. This resulted in the following long-term effects:

• Persistence in the environment: Most PFAS do not fully mineralize under natural conditions, making them among the most environmentally persistent organic substances known and often referred to as “forever chemicals”5. For example, the half-life of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) in water may be more than 41 years1.
• Migration and conversion: PFAS can migrate between different environmental media, such as soil to groundwater to surface water21. Certain polyfluoroalkyl substances can be converted into more stable perfluoroalkyl acids, adding to the complexity of environmental pollution21.
• Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: Certain PFAS, especially long-chain PFAS (such as PFOS), can accumulate in aquatic and terrestrial organisms21. Additionally, they can biomagnify in the food chain, leading to higher concentrations in top predators, including humans21.

The persistence, migration, and bioaccumulation of PFAS have resulted in widespread and increasing environmental contamination, posing long-term threats to ecosystems and human health.

There are many case studies on past and current PFAS use and contamination in different industries:

• Firefighting Foam (AFFF) Contamination: Severe cases of groundwater contamination linked to the use of PFAS-containing AFFF for firefighting training and emergency response have been documented near military bases and airports across the United States37.For example, at one military base in Cape Cod, Massachusetts, studies estimate that PFAS contamination will persist for centuries37.
• Textile industry pollution: A study in Bangladesh found that the textile industry caused significant water pollution, with PFAS present in almost all water samples, many of which exceeded EU and US regulatory limits23.
• Chemical manufacturing pollution: The Chemours (formerly DuPont) plant in Dordrecht, the Netherlands, faces litigation over a leak of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) that contaminated soil and water in the surrounding area40. A similar case occurred in Minnesota, where 3M settled for millions of dollars over drinking water contamination caused by its PFAS waste disposal in the East Twin Cities area.41.

These case studies highlight the significant impacts of PFAS use across industries on the environment and human health, and highlight the need for accountability and remediation.

Growing awareness of the dangers of PFAS has prompted efforts to reduce or eliminate PFAS use and contamination in these industries:

• Regulations: Governments and international organizations are implementing or considering implementing stricter PFAS regulations42.This includes maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for certain PFAS in drinking water, designation of PFOA and PFOS as hazardous substances, and bans on the use of PFAS in specific applications (for example, in some U.S. states, the use of PFAS in textiles and firefighting foams is banned)11.The EU is also considering a total ban on PFAS42.
• Best practices: Industries are exploring and implementing best practices to reduce the use and release of PFAS12.This includes the use of fluorine-free firefighting foam (F3) as an alternative to AFFF50, and the use of paraffin- or silicone-based water-repellent treatments in textiles10. Best practices are also being developed for the proper handling and disposal of waste containing PFAS, such as AFFF12.
• Alternative: Scientists and engineers are actively developing safer alternatives to PFAS for use in a variety of applications54.For example, in food packaging, other barrier coatings could be used to replace PFAS54. However, for some critical applications, such as specialty textiles that require high performance (e.g., military protective clothing), finding suitable alternatives remains a challenge9.

Despite progress, completely phasing out PFAS remains a complex and lengthy process due to their diversity and reliance on their performance in many industrial processes.

Since the 1940s, the textile industry, firefighting, chemical manufacturing, electronics and semiconductor industries, and paper and packaging have been major users of PFAS. These industries exploit the unique properties of PFAS as coatings, additives and surfactants in manufacturing processes. However, the persistence, mobility, and bioaccumulation of these chemicals result in severe long-term environmental contamination, affecting soil, groundwater, surface water, and air. Case studies highlight the widespread pollution caused by these industries and their impact on human health and ecosystems. While regulations are evolving and alternatives and best practices are being explored, reducing and eliminating PFAS use and contamination remains a significant challenge due to their ubiquity and their critical role in a variety of applications. Ongoing research, strict regulations and proactive industry efforts are critical to mitigating the long-term environmental impacts of these “forever chemicals.”

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