Global seafood crisis? Revealing the Three-Nation War on High-density Breeding and Pollution: Who Can Sustainably Break Through Between the Netherlands, China and the United States?

Although high-density aquaculture meets human seafood needs, it also brings pollution risks. The Netherlands, China and the United States have adopted different regulatory responses to address deteriorating water quality, drug abuse and ecological damage. In the future, sustainable farming will rely on technological innovation, policy implementation and international cooperation.

High-density aquaculture has become increasingly important as a key means of meeting the growing global demand for seafood. However, this rapidly growing industry also creates significant environmental problems, including water pollution, land use conflicts, and impacts on local ecosystems. To ensure the sustainable development of this industry, an effective regulatory framework and best management practices are crucial. This report aims to analyze the pollution problems caused by high-density aquaculture in the Netherlands, China and the United States, examine the experience of these regions in pollution control, compare their policy measures, learn from international best practices, and ultimately explore ways to promote more sustainable high-density aquaculture development on a global scale.

The aquaculture industry in the Netherlands is relatively small but diverse, consisting mainly of marine shellfish (mussel and oyster culture) and land-based fish farms using closed recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), mainly for species such as eels and catfish1. In 2021, 89% of the Netherlands’ aquaculture output value comes from seawater and saltwater areas, and the remaining 11% comes from freshwater areas2. Although land-based fish farming in the Netherlands mainly uses RAS technology, which is considered environmentally friendly, marine aquaculture activities are still a significant source of marine plastic pollution3. Analysis of beach litter on Grinder Island shows 0.9% can be directly traced to the aquaculture industry3。

The Netherlands faces widespread nitrate and pesticide water contamination from agricultural activities, making its water environment particularly sensitive to additional sources of pollution from the aquaculture industry5. Although data between 2012 and 2015 shows that around 88% of groundwater monitoring stations have nitrate concentrations that meet EU legal thresholds, 60% of freshwater bodies are still eutrophic.5. Marine aquaculture (mariculture) is also considered an important and growing cause of nutrient enrichment in coastal areas6. Eutrophication can cause algae blooms, depleting oxygen in water bodies and adversely affecting entire aquatic habitats.5. Research shows that even when nitrate levels are normal, the presence of pesticides may trigger algae blooms by affecting algae-eating organisms.5。

The Netherlands’ limited land resources have prompted it to actively explore new marine production areas, including developing aquaculture within wind farms, and supporting innovation in recirculating aquaculture technology to reduce wastewater generated by land-based farming.1. Eutrophication not only affects water quality, but also causes algae blooms and oxygen depletion, posing a threat to the entire aquatic ecosystem.5. In addition, plastic waste generated from marine aquaculture activities will also have adverse impacts on the marine environment and society.3. The assessment report of the European Marine Environment Commission (OSPAR) pointed out that aquaculture may have an impact on the environment through genetic interactions between farmed fish and wild populations, the spread of parasites and diseases, the spread of non-native species, and the release of toxic substances such as antibiotics.8. While these reports are not specific to the Netherlands, these are potential ecological risks common to high-density aquaculture.

China is the world’s largest aquaculture producer, with output reaching 52.2 million tons in 20219, reaching 58.12 million tons in 2023, accounting for 81.9% of the country’s total seafood production10. China’s aquaculture industry is large-scale and diverse, covering both freshwater and marine environments and a wide range of cultured species9. However, the rapid development of near-shore aquaculture, sometimes without planning, has resulted in serious environmental pollution and ecological problems, including direct discharge of aquaculture wastewater, accumulation of feces, and abuse of fishery drugs (especially antibiotics)11. Nutrient-rich wastewater discharged from fish farms can lead to eutrophication of water bodies13, and trigger harmful algae blooms (red tides)11. Research shows that the concentration of heavy metals in lakes is positively correlated with the intensity of fish farming. These heavy metals mainly come from uneaten feed, fertilizers and chemicals used in the farming process.14. In addition, aquaculture activities also produce plastic waste, such as fishing nets, feed bags and breeding pond linings, which pollute the environment.15。

Inland aquaculture is overly concentrated in East China and also faces problems such as water pollution.16. Although China’s inland water quality has generally improved since 2003, this has been driven by reductions in pollution emissions from the industrial, rural and urban residential sectors.No. 17. However, growth in emissions from the agricultural sector offset some of the improvements, and nitrogen and phosphorus levels in inland fishery waters did not change significantly between 2003 and 2017, leaving the risk of eutrophication still present.18。

China is revising its fisheries law to emphasize the green development and sustainability of aquaculture, including strengthening control of marine aquaculture areas and promoting environmentally friendly technologies such as recirculating aquacultureNo. 19. Revised law aims to improve traceability of fish products and impose stricter regulations on pharmaceutical use and wastewater dischargeNo. 19. However, gaps remain between policy and practice, and challenges remain in effectively implementing and enforcing these regulations22. The government has implemented fishing closures and restrictions on harmful fishing gear to protect coastal fish stocks, which is relevant in the context of aquaculture as a sustainable protein source.10。

The U.S. aquaculture industry is smaller than China’s, but equally diverse, including aquaculture (fish, shellfish, seaweed) in coastal state waters and research and proposed commercial aquaculture facilities in some federal waters15. The aquaculture industry in the United States is regulated by strict laws and regulations at both the federal and state levels25. Intensive fish ponds are mainly used to raise freshwater fish, such as catfish. These farms are mainly concentrated in the southern United States, especially the Mississippi River Delta region.24. These fish ponds emit pollutants including total suspended solids, settleable solids, biological waste and nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen)27. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) National Lake Assessment Report shows that a significant proportion of U.S. lakes are in poor condition due to excessive levels of phosphorus and nitrogen28。

Cage aquaculture occurs primarily in marine waters, particularly in the Pacific Northwest (such as Puget Sound), and there are proposed projects for cage aquaculture in federal waters30. Cage culture may have impacts on water quality, including fluctuations in dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus, turbidity, lipids and dissolved oxygen32. The accumulation of organic waste beneath cages can also have an impact on the benthic environment, possibly leading to oxygen depletion and changes in benthic communities.32. Although license requirements are designed to minimize the risk of fish escaping30, but escapes from farmed fish remain a potential problem, with escaped farmed salmon potentially competing with and interbreeding with wild populations24. The spread of diseases and parasites between farmed and wild fish is also a concern34. Differences in the type and scale of aquaculture in different regions of the United States result in different environmental challenges and regulatory environments24. Offshore aquaculture development in federal waters faces challenges with regulatory uncertainty23。

The United States has strict federal and state laws and regulations governing the aquaculture industry, including the Clean Water Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act33. EPA licenses concentrated aquatic animal production facilities (CAAP) under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), sets wastewater discharge limits and requires implementation of best management practices (BMPs)27. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) plays a central role in developing and implementing aquaculture policy for the marine environment25. Still, some environmental groups have expressed concerns about potential environmental impacts such as pollution, fish escapes and the spread of disease23。

Aquaculture regulation in the Netherlands is primarily driven by EU environmental directives, China is strengthening its national fisheries laws to emphasize sustainability, and the United States has a federal and state-level regulatory system focused on environmental protection. All three regions have mechanisms in place to control aquaculture water pollution, including discharge permits, wastewater discharge limits and monitoring requirements. The United States has a clear NPDES licensing system, while the Netherlands adheres to EU standards. China is tightening its wastewater discharge regulations, but implementation remains a key factor. In terms of land use and spatial planning, the Netherlands is focusing on marine areas and RAS technology, China is actively moving towards offshore farming, and the United States is still in the early stages of offshore farming regulation. Spatial planning is a key aspect of aquaculture regulation in all three regions, but specific strategies vary depending on geographical constraints and development priorities.

Assessing the effectiveness of these regulatory frameworks in addressing key environmental impacts such as nutrient contamination, disease transmission and fish escape is challenging. Despite comprehensive regulations in the United States, nutrient contamination problems persist. China faces challenges in enforcing its evolving regulations. The emphasis on RAS technology in the Netherlands could help alleviate some of the problems of land-based fish farming. The Netherlands has advantages in promoting RAS technology and exploring multi-use areas of the ocean; however, it may have shortcomings in addressing the impact of shellfish farming and agricultural runoff on aquaculture. China has made significant efforts to revise and strengthen fisheries laws to achieve sustainable development; however, historical pollution and the ability to ensure effective enforcement in a large and diverse industry remain challenges. The United States has a long-standing and comprehensive legal framework, including specific wastewater discharge guidelines and BMP requirements; however, emerging offshore aquaculture faces regulatory complexity and uncertainty. The transferability of regulatory strategies depends on a variety of factors, including the scale and type of aquaculture, existing legal and governance structures, and the specific environmental challenges faced. The Netherlands’ experience in RAS may serve as a reference for China. The U.S. NPDES permit system provides a model for controlling emissions. However, due to different contexts, direct replication may not always be feasible.

Many best management practices for high-density aquaculture pollution exist internationally. Choosing a suitable breeding site is a critical BMP and should take into account flow and water quality32. Optimizing feed management to reduce uneaten feed and nutrient emissions is critical27. Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) reduce water consumption and environmental impact by collecting and removing waste, and represent an important BMP, particularly suitable for land-based fish farming4. Integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) combines the cultivation of species at different trophic levels to assimilate waste, providing a promising approach to building a more circular and sustainable aquaculture system32. Preventing disease through biosecurity and vaccination can reduce the need for antibiotics34. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)’s “Guidelines for Sustainable Aquaculture” provide a comprehensive global normative framework for the sustainable development of aquaculture.42. Aquaculture can also be used as a tool for ecological restoration, such as through oyster farming to create habitat and filter water quality47。

The findings indicate that high-density aquaculture can lead to several types of pollution:

• Eutrophication: Excessive nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) emissions lead to algae blooms and oxygen depletion5。
• Antibiotic abuse: Excessive or inappropriate use of antibiotics in some aquaculture practices can lead to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria11。
• Disease spread: High densities of farmed fish may promote the spread of diseases and parasites that may be transmitted to wild populations8。
• Habitat destruction: Conversion of coastal habitats (e.g. mangroves) into breeding ponds and physical damage to breeding structures32。
• Chemical pollution: Chemicals used in aquaculture, such as antifouling agents, disinfectants and pesticides, are released into the environment8。
• Farmed fish escape: Escaped farmed fish may have adverse impacts on local ecosystems8。
• Solid waste pollution: Plastic waste and sludge accumulation from farming equipment3。
• Deterioration of water quality: Accumulation of toxic compounds and depletion of dissolved oxygen53。

Countries have adopted a variety of strategies and tools to control pollution from high-density aquaculture:

• Emission permit: Set limits on pollutant emissions27。
• Environmental Impact Assessment: Assess potential environmental consequences31。
• Technical standards: Promote cleaner technologies such as RAS1。
• Best management practices: Encourage environmentally friendly farming methods27。
• Monitoring and Enforcement: Ensure compliance with regulations8。
• Zoning and spatial planning: Delineate areas suitable for aquaculture22。
• Wastewater Discharge Guidelines: Develop wastewater quality standards27。
• Certification Program: Promote voluntary sustainable development standards61。

Driving the development of more sustainable high-density aquaculture globally requires a multifaceted approach:

• Strengthen the supervision framework: Implement a sound, scientific and effectively enforced regulatory framework.
• Promote best management practices: Encourage widespread adoption of tailored BMPs through incentives and education.
• Invest in R&D and innovation: Support research and development of sustainable feeds, disease prevention, waste management and alternative farming systems.
• Strengthen spatial planning and regional division: Strategically designate areas for aquaculture, taking into account environmental factors and other uses.
• Improve monitoring and transparency: Strengthen monitoring and promote transparent reporting of environmental performance.
• Promote international cooperation: Promote knowledge sharing and collaboration on sustainable practices.
• Take advantage of market mechanisms: Support certification programs and consumer awareness.
• Addressing the impacts of climate change: Improving the resilience of aquaculture systems and reducing their greenhouse gas emissions.
• Integrating aquaculture with ecological restoration: Exploring restorative aquaculture methods.

High-density aquaculture in the Netherlands, China and the United States all faces significant environmental pollution problems. Although countries differ in regulatory strategies and implementation, there is recognition of the need for more sustainable practices. A strong regulatory framework, the adoption of best management practices, and continued innovation in research and development are critical to mitigating the environmental impacts of aquaculture. Through international collaboration and knowledge sharing, we can work together to advance high-density aquaculture globally towards a more sustainable future.

nation	Key supervision points	Specific measures/tools	Remarkable results	Main challenges
Netherlands	Water quality protection under the EU directive framework, promotion of RAS	Emission permit, EU Water Framework Directive, RAS technology promotion	RAS effectively reduces direct emissions in land-based fish farming	Fragrant pollution from shellfish farming, effects of agricultural runoff
China	Fisheries Law revised to emphasize green and sustainable development	Discharge permits, fishing closures, restrictions on harmful fishing gear, and promotion of eco-friendly technologies	Revision of Fisheries Law reflects willingness for sustainable development	Historical contamination, the complexities of effective enforcement
USA	Environmental protection, wastewater discharge control	NPDES permits, environmental impact assessments, best management practices, federal and state regulations	A comprehensive regulatory framework has been established	Uncertainty in the regulation of offshore aquaculture and differences in enforcement efforts in different regions

 

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