The era of shit gold is here! The amount of livestock and poultry manure in Taiwan is exploding, turning waste into the key to sustainable agriculture

Taiwan’s livestock industry is highly concentrated, resulting in excess production of livestock and poultry manure, which not only threatens the quality of water, soil and air, but also increases greenhouse gas emissions. If advanced processing technology and circular economy can be introduced, manure will become resources such as energy and fertilizer, and it is expected to create a new situation in sustainable agriculture.

Taiwan is an island country with a subtropical climate, high temperature and humidity1, faces unique challenges in managing its agricultural sector. The interaction of these environmental conditions with the increasing demand for animal-based protein, driven by continued economic development and rising living standards, has significantly enhanced livestock production across the island1. The surge in production coupled with the inherent geographical constraints of pastoral lands1, leading to a high concentration of livestock breeding areas. Therefore, the management of the large amounts of manure produced has become a critical environmental and public health issue. Increasing environmental awareness among Taiwanese people further highlights the need for a complete re-evaluation and significant improvement of current manure disposal practices1. The combined effects of climate, economic growth, land scarcity, and public awareness present a complex situation in which implementing effective and sustainable livestock manure management strategies is critical to protecting Taiwan’s environment and people’s well-being.

Taiwan’s livestock industry consists of several key sectors, each with its own distribution pattern and scale of operations.

• Pig industry: Pork production is geographically concentrated in six counties, Yunlin and Pingtung, which together account for more than 50% of the total sows, followed by Tainan, Changhua, Chiayi and Kaohsiung4. In the past 40 years, the pig breeding industry has undergone earth-shaking changes. The number of breeding farms has dropped by 99%, but the number of sows has increased by 2.4 times.4. Current trends indicate a continued shift towards large-scale farming, with most pig farms currently holding an average of around 900 pigs9. In 2023, large-scale pig farms with more than 1,000 pigs will account for 72% of the pig population.4. Taiwan is also actively striving to become a swine fever-free country, which will greatly enhance its international pork export potential.9. The pig industry is concentrated in specific areas such as Yunlin and Pingtung. The scale of breeding continues to expand, and manure production is highly localized, which requires targeted and large-scale management plans. The economic impact of achieving disease-free status further emphasizes the need for environmentally sound practices in the sector.
• poultry industry: Taiwan’s laying hen farms are mainly located in the central and southern regions13. The industry is characterized by large production, with approximately 180 million white-feathered broilers and 175 million colored broilers annually13. The daily egg production is also very high, highlighting the huge scale of the industry and its huge contribution to the overall value of Taiwan’s livestock industry14. Layer farms are concentrated in the central and southern regions of Taiwan, indicating that these regions face considerable challenges in managing the large amounts of poultry manure produced. The overall scale of the poultry industry further highlights the seriousness of the manure management problem across the island.
• Dairy industry: The main dairy production areas in Taiwan include Fuxing Township in Changhua County, Wandan Township in Pingtung County, Liuying District in Tainan County, and Lunbei Township in Yunlin County16. Compared to the swine and poultry industries, Taiwan’s dairy industry has a smaller number of farms, with an average herd size of approximately 222 cows per farm, including milking cows and unborn cows16. Holstein cattle are the dominant breed among dairy cattle herds in Taiwan. Most of the raw milk produced is used for fresh milk consumption, and the rest is processed into fermented products or flavored milk.16. Although small compared to other livestock industries, the dairy industry is concentrated in specific areas and therefore needs to focus on manure management, particularly water use and preventing runoff.

livestock type	main areas	Key production statistics (latest available)
pig	Yunlin, Pingtung, Tainan, Changhua, Chiayi, Kaohsiung	5,761 farms, 5.31 million pigs (2023)11;Average 940 pigs per farm11; 72% of farms with more than 1,000 pigs (2023)11
poultry	Central and Southern Taiwan	White broiler chickens: approximately 180 million/year13;Colored broilers: approximately 175 million/year13;approximately 8 billion eggs per year15
dairy products	Changhua, Pingtung, Tainan, Yunlin	566 Farms (Season 2, 2022)16;average 222 head per farm (Q2 2022)16; Liquid milk production is approximately 460,000 metric tons (estimated in 2022)16

 

The huge amount of livestock manure produced in Taiwan poses huge management challenges. For example, pigs produce large amounts of feces every day, estimated at 7.2% to 7.7% of their body weight19. For a farm with 10,000 pigs, this could result in more than 40 tonnes of manure being produced per day19. Nationwide, Taiwan’s agriculture produces about 5 million tons of agricultural and sideline products every year, of which livestock and poultry manure accounts for the majority.19. Based on the estimated 5.5 million pigs raised in Taiwan, the daily output of pig manure is about 24,585 tons, which can produce about 1,375,000 cubic meters of biogas every day.19. Such large amounts of manure highlight the seriousness of the overproduction problem and the potential to recover large amounts of resources through appropriate treatment technologies.

The overproduction of livestock and poultry manure in Taiwan causes multiple adverse environmental consequences for water, soil, and air quality and contributes to greenhouse gas emissions.

• water quality: Pig farming is an important part of Taiwan’s agriculture and is also the main cause of water pollution caused by animal husbandry.20. It is estimated that the daily biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) of livestock wastewater accounts for a large proportion of the total BOD in Taiwan’s water systems20. Untreated pig wastewater contains a variety of harmful substances, including organic pollutants, minerals and hormones. If discharged directly into rivers without proper treatment, these wastewaters can lead to microbial contamination, reduced water quality, and contamination of farmland and aquatic ecosystems.No. 22. In addition, livestock manure contains large amounts of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. If biogas is not collected for energy use, the remaining by-products will be directly discharged, which will seriously pollute rivers and the atmosphere.19. Pathogens present in livestock manure, including bacteria and viruses, can also contaminate water supplies and pose significant risks to human and animal health if not handled properly23. Additionally, nitrate contamination of groundwater has been observed, particularly in areas with intensive pig farming, as evidenced by studies conducted following large-scale pig carcass disposal incidentsNo. 27。
• soil quality: Although livestock manure is considered a renewable resource rich in nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, improper disposal methods such as on-site plowing, burial, stacking, or discharge may result in the loss of these reusable resources and cause environmental pollution19. In addition, livestock manure may contain heavy metals such as copper, zinc and chromium. These heavy metals may accumulate in farmland soil for a long time, posing risks to soil health and may enter the food chain.30. Presence of antibiotic resistance genesE. coli Bacteria isolated from piglets on pig farms also show how antibiotic resistance is transmitted to soil through the application of manure33。
• air quality: Pig farms often attract complaints from nearby residents due to wastewater and odor problems, especially as Taiwan’s hot and humid climate makes the situation even more serious.3. Odor molecules emitted by pig manure include volatile sulfur compounds, phenols, indoles, volatile fatty acids and amides3. In addition, intensive pig farms produce high concentrations of particulate pollutants and gaseous pollutants such as carbon dioxide and ammonia.3. Livestock waste is also the largest source of agricultural greenhouse gas emissions, of which methane, a gas with extremely high global warming potential, is a major component19。
• greenhouse gas emissions: Livestock manure is a significant source of methane, a potent greenhouse gas with about 25 times the warming potential of carbon dioxide19. Taiwan’s agricultural sector contributes to the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions, with livestock industry playing an important role36. However, using livestock manure for biogas recovery not only reduces these emissions but also converts the biomass into green energy. 19。

Taiwan has established a framework of regulations, policies, and popular technologies to address the challenges of livestock manure management.

• Regulations and policies: Taiwan’s Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has implemented wastewater standards specifically for pig farms to regulate water pollution, stipulating the maximum allowable levels for parameters such as BOD, COD and suspended solids.20. Since 2016, the Agriculture Council has actively promoted the reuse of biogas generated from pig manure for power generation and pollution control, and has worked with the Environmental Protection Agency to encourage the use of biogas slurry to irrigate farmland19. To further incentivize better manure management, a water pollution prevention fee has been levied on livestock farmers since 2017, encouraging them to upgrade pollution control facilities and adopt practices consistent with circular agriculture principles19. The Taiwanese government also provides financial subsidies aimed at upgrading livestock feeding, equipment and automated machinery, in part to address environmental issues of food security and disease outbreaks48. Taiwan’s livestock and poultry manure recycling and reuse rate has reached 80%. The government supports the establishment of 32 large-scale processing centers and more than 5,000 temporary compost bins to encourage farmers to collect fresh animal manure and produce well-fermented manure for profit.49. In order to better understand and manage livestock pollution, the government established a livestock geographical data system and commissioned the National Yunlin University of Science and Technology to use satellite positioning technology to establish a database of domestic livestock farm locations and information on related pollution prevention and control facilities.50. In addition, the “Regulations on the Management of Agricultural Waste Collaborative Processing Facilities” have also been formulated to provide a regulatory framework for shared waste processing facilities and assist farmers’ associations in raising funds or establishing cooperative relationships. 50。
• Common processing techniques and practices: Three-stage wastewater treatment system, consisting of solid/liquid separator, anaerobic fermentation tank and aerobic fermentation tank, is the mainstream method of Taiwan pig farm wastewater treatment20. Composting is also a widely practiced practice of processing livestock manure into organic fertilizer, and the government supports the development of composting facilities19. Anaerobic digestion is increasingly implemented, especially on large pig farms, as a means of producing biogas for power and heating, often as part of modern “circulating pig farms”19. Solid-liquid separation is a common initial step in manure processing, helping to reduce solids volume and make the remaining liquid more suitable for subsequent processing20. Land application of treated manure (particularly biogas slurry) is also practiced and promoted as a method of recycling nutrients back into the soil, thereby reducing the need for chemical fertilizers19。

A number of innovative livestock manure management technologies have emerged around the world, providing Taiwan with application potential:

• advanced anaerobic digestion: Innovations in anaerobic digestion aim to increase biogas production through optimized reactor design, co-digestion of manure and other organic substrates, and advanced operating strategies69。
• Pyrolysis and gasification: These thermochemical processes convert livestock manure into biochar (a valuable soil amendment used to sequester carbon and improve soil fertility) as well as bio-oil and syngas, which can be used as renewable energy76。
• Nutrient recovery: Advanced technology focuses on extracting valuable nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen from fecal digestion fluid to produce concentrated fertilizer products such as struvite and ammonium sulfate76。
• Algae-based treatment: Culturing microalgae in livestock wastewater provides a sustainable method of removing nutrients and producing algal biomass that can be further processed into bioenergy or high-value products96。
• Insect-based biotransformation: Utilizing insects, specifically black soldier fly larvae, to bioconvert livestock manure into protein-rich insect meal for animal feed and nutrient-rich residue (rot) as fertilizer, an emerging method of sustainable waste management76。
• membrane filtration: Use membrane technologies such as microfiltration, ultrafiltration, nanofiltration and reverse osmosis to enhance the separation of solids and liquids, concentrate nutrients and recover clean water from livestock manure streams92。

Despite the existing framework, Taiwan still faces several challenges and limitations in effectively managing livestock manure:

• technical barriers: Adopting advanced manure treatment technologies often requires specialized technical knowledge and infrastructure that may not be readily available or affordable to all farmers47. Past experience with biogas systems in Taiwan shows that the technology needs to be mature and adapted to local conditions to be successful.47。
• economic barriers: The large capital investment required to establish advanced treatment facilities such as anaerobic digesters and nutrient recovery systems can be a major obstacle for farmers, especially those operating on small scale47. The economic feasibility of these technologies is also affected by factors such as energy prices and market demand for recycled by-products, which may fluctuate119。
• land restrictions: Taiwan’s limited land area poses considerable challenges to building large-scale manure treatment facilities and using the treated manure as fertilizer, especially in densely populated agricultural areas1. In this context, technologies that minimize land footprints or produce concentrated, easily transportable products are critical.
• Regulatory and policy challenges: Although Taiwan has enacted environmental regulations for the livestock industry, ensuring consistent compliance and effective enforcement across a large and diverse industry can be challenging41. There may also be resistance from industry and society to adopting new manure management practices due to economic concerns or lack of awareness of their benefits41. In addition, different government agencies responsible for agriculture, environment and energy may need to take a more comprehensive and coordinated approach to optimize the overall effectiveness of manure management policies126。

In order to strengthen the management of excessive production of livestock and poultry manure in Taiwan, the following recommendations are made:

• policy adjustment: The government should consider strengthening and improving existing environmental regulations regarding the handling and discharge of livestock and poultry manure to ensure stricter enforcement and compliance. Implementing targeted financial incentive programs, such as subsidies and tax breaks, can encourage farmers of all sizes to adopt advanced and sustainable manure treatment technologies. It may also be beneficial to establish clear guidelines and support mechanisms for farmers to participate in carbon credit trading schemes related to methane reduction in manure management. Policies should be formulated to further promote the circular economy of livestock and poultry manure and emphasize the recovery and reuse of valuable resources such as nutrients and energy. Simplifying regulatory processes for the establishment and operation of biogas plants and other resource recovery facilities will also help accelerate the adoption of these technologies.
• Technology upgrade: Increased investment in research, development, and demonstration programs is needed to adapt and optimize internationally innovative manure treatment technologies to Taiwan’s specific agricultural conditions. Anaerobic digestion for biogas production should be prioritized, especially in areas with concentrated livestock, and technical and financial support should be provided. It is also crucial to support the implementation of nutrient recovery technology to produce concentrated fertilizer products and reduce nutrient pollution in water bodies. The feasibility of algae- and insect-based bioconversion systems as sustainable alternatives for manure treatment and resource recovery should be further explored. Encouraging the use of solid-liquid separation as a pretreatment step can significantly improve the efficiency of other manure treatment processes.
• Industrial cooperation and capacity building: Promoting greater collaboration and knowledge sharing among government agencies (Ministry of Agriculture, Environmental Protection Agency), research institutions, industry stakeholders and farmers is critical to promote best practices and technological advancements in manure management. Comprehensive training programs and extension services should be developed and provided to educate farmers on the operation, maintenance, and benefits of adopting advanced manure handling systems. Supporting the establishment of agricultural cooperatives or shared manure treatment facilities can give small farms access to advanced technologies and achieve economies of scale in waste management.
• circular economy initiatives: Efforts should be made to create and support markets for manure processing by-products, including biogas power generation, biochar, recycled nutrients, and insect meal, to increase the economic viability of sustainable manure management practices. Promoting the use of treated manure and its derivatives as organic fertilizers in agriculture through education, incentives and quality standards can reduce dependence on chemical fertilizers. Exploring the potential for utilizing manure-derived materials in other industries, such as using biochar in construction or as soil amendments in urban areas, could further increase the value of this resource.

The excessive production of livestock and poultry manure in concentrated areas of Taiwan poses major environmental and public health challenges that require immediate and comprehensive attention. Although Taiwan has established a basic framework for manure management, the continuous expansion of the scale of the livestock industry and the increasing awareness of environmental sustainability require a shift to more effective and innovative practices. The use of advanced energy and nutrient recovery technologies, coupled with strategic policy adjustments and enhanced cross-sector collaboration, are key to transforming livestock manure from a waste problem into a valuable resource. By adopting a circular economy approach, Taiwan can mitigate the environmental impact of livestock farming, protect natural resources, and ensure the long-term viability of the agricultural sector. The joint efforts of policymakers, farmers, researchers, and technology providers are critical to achieving a sustainable future for livestock manure management in Taiwan. <ctrl95># Analysis of excessive production of livestock manure in concentrated areas in Taiwan: current mechanisms and future directions

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