Don’t let fertilizer turn into poison! Untreated livestock and poultry manure is quietly harming your land and table

Although untreated livestock and poultry manure is rich in nutrients, long-term use may lead to soil salinization, accumulation of heavy metals and contamination of agricultural products, threatening the environment and food safety. Experts call for treatment and monitoring to prevent natural resources from turning into environmental disasters.

Livestock and poultry manure has long been considered a valuable resource in agriculture, providing a natural source of essential nutrients and organic matter that improves soil fertility and structure. This practice supports plant growth and helps create a more sustainable farming system through nutrient recycling. However, applyingunprocessedLivestock and poultry manure poses a range of potential hazards that can negatively impact soil health, agricultural productivity and environmental quality. These concerns have led to increased scrutiny of manure management practices and a growing number of studies investigating the risks associated with the use of untreated animal waste in crop production. This report will delve into three main areas of concern: the mechanisms and consequences of soil salinization, the accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural soils, and the potential for agricultural products to be contaminated with pathogens, antibiotic residues, and heavy metals, all of which stem from the use of untreated livestock and poultry manure as fertilizer. This analysis will be based on a review of academic research and trusted websites, subject to specific exclusions to ensure the information is scientific and relevant.

Mechanisms leading to increased soil salinity

Livestock and poultry manure itself contains a large amount of soluble salts1. Research shows that the concentration of these salts varies depending on animal species2. For example, research shows that chicken and pigeon manure tend to have higher total soluble salts (TSS) levels than pig manure2. This difference in initial salt content suggests that the species of livestock and poultry from which manure is derived plays a crucial role in the potential for soil salinization. The ingredients in animal feed, including salt added to enhance flavor and maintain the cation-anion balance in the diet, directly affect the salt content in their feces2. Therefore, any changes in the way animals are raised will have subsequent effects on the salinity levels of the manure produced.

Additionally, the decomposition of organic matter in manure releases inorganic ions into the soil, thereby increasing the overall salinity of the soil. These ions include major components such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), magnesium (Mg2+), and chlorine (Cl−)1. Notably, studies have found that potassium (K+) can be the dominant cation in topsoil where manure is applied1, especially in soils where poultry manure has been applied4. This shift in ion balance may affect the availability of other essential nutrients in the soil and may also have direct toxic effects on some plant species that are sensitive to high concentrations of specific ions. The relative proportions of these released ions in different types of manure will affect the specific ionic composition of soil salinity, which can affect plant health in different ways depending on the plant’s tolerance of individual ions.2。

Effect on soil properties

Studies consistently show that the application of untreated livestock and poultry manure increases soil electrical conductivity (EC)1. EC is a direct measure of salt concentration in soil, and rising EC levels indicate increased salinity. Studies have demonstrated a clear correlation between the cumulative application of manure and the resulting increase in soil EC over time.1. This dose-response relationship suggests that higher untreated manure application rates are likely to result in higher soil salinity levels. The accumulation of soluble salts from manure in the soil solution increases the soil’s osmotic potential, making it more difficult for plant roots to absorb water, even if the soil appears to have sufficient moisture.1。

Additionally, the application of untreated manure disrupts the ion balance in the soil, resulting in increased sodium sorption ratio (SAR) and potassium sorption ratio (PAR)1. Elevated SAR is of particular concern in clay-rich soils as it can lead to dispersion of soil particles, thereby reducing soil permeability and structural degradation7. Elevated sodium ion concentrations displace other essential cations, such as calcium and magnesium, from exchange sites in the soil, affecting nutrient availability to plants6. Advantages of potassium ions in manure-treated topsoil1 will further exacerbate this imbalance.

The effect of untreated manure on soil pH may vary depending on the situation1. While some types of manure, such as poultry manure, tend to increase soil pH18, but others (such as pig manure) have been observed to cause a decrease in pH1. These changes in soil pH are important because they affect the solubility and availability of essential plant nutrients and heavy metal contaminants present in manure and the soil itself20. Therefore, understanding the type of manure used and its potential impact on soil pH is critical to managing overall soil health.

Effects on plant growth and water availability

Increased soil salinity caused by untreated manure application can cause osmotic stress in plants1. High concentrations of salts in soil solutions reduce moisture potential and make it more difficult for plant roots to absorb water, even if the soil appears to have adequate moisture. This physiological drought stress can seriously affect plant growth and development. It is worth noting that different crops have different tolerances to soil salinity.5. For example, carrots and spinach are particularly sensitive to increased salinity and may experience significant yield reductions even at relatively low salt concentrations.5. This difference in salt tolerance highlights the need for careful crop selection in agricultural systems that primarily use untreated manure as fertilizer.

In addition to osmotic stress, high salinity can directly lead to ion toxicity of plants1. When certain ions such as sodium and chloride are present in excess, they can have a toxic effect on plant tissues, leading to visible symptoms such as leaf burns, wilting, and ultimately plant death. Additionally, increased soil salinity can interfere with plants’ ability to absorb essential nutrients from the soil1. Research shows that salinity specifically hinders the uptake of nitrogen, a key nutrient for plant development and overall yield28. The increased osmotic potential in the soil due to high salt concentrations reduces the water potential gradient between the soil and plant roots, limiting not only water uptake but also the transport of dissolved nutrients to the plant.

Effects of soil type and climate

The effects of manure-induced salinization are also significantly affected by soil type. Sandy soils have lower buffering capacity and are therefore particularly susceptible to rapid increases in salinity following the application of untreated manure7. Its rough texture and limited ability to retain water and fertilizer means that salts from the manure can quickly accumulate in the root zone, causing plant stress.

Climate plays a key role in regulating the salinity effects of manure, with rainfall patterns being a key factor. In areas with arid and semi-arid climates, where rainfall is low, there is not enough water to leach the salts accumulated in manure out of the soil profile1. This lack of leaching causes salts to concentrate in the surface soil, further exacerbating the salinization problem. Additionally, the high evapotranspiration rates common in arid climates exacerbate the problem by drawing water up the soil profile and leaving salts on the surface1。

Conversely, in areas with humid climates where there is sufficient rainfall, leaching may occur, with the rain helping to flush away accumulated salts from the root zone. While this mitigates the risk of soil salinization, it also provides a potential pathway for these soluble salts to seep into groundwater, raising concerns about water quality.1. Additionally, irrigation patterns can interact with salinization caused by manure. Studies have shown that increases in soil EC after manure application are generally greater under non-irrigated conditions compared to irrigated conditions1, this may be because irrigation water helps move salts into deeper soil profiles. While some studies suggest that manure, combined with other specific management techniques (such as plastic film mulching), can play a role in reducing soil salinity in specific environments (such as newly reclaimed coastal soils)1, but this is usually done under controlled conditions, rather than what is common when using untreated feces alone.

Sources of heavy metals in feces

Heavy metals are commonly found in livestock and poultry manure, mainly due to the presence of these heavy metals in feed19. Trace minerals such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), arsenic (As), and chromium (Cr) are often added to animal diets to promote growth, improve overall health, and prevent disease.38. These supplemental minerals often have limited bioavailability in the animal’s digestive system, meaning that most heavy metals ingested are not absorbed but are subsequently excreted in the feces47. This inefficient absorption results in the accumulation of these elements in manure, posing a potential environmental risk when untreated manure is applied to agricultural fields as fertilizer.
In addition to feed additives, other anthropogenic sources contribute to heavy metal levels in feces. Veterinary treatments, such as footbaths with copper sulfate solutions on dairy farms to prevent infection, can lead to elevated copper levels in the feces produced46. In addition, although feed additives are the main source, heavy metals can also enter animal diets through the consumption of feed and water contaminated by environmental contamination from industrial activities, mining or other sources51。

Types of heavy metals and their potential accumulation in soil

Research has detected a variety of heavy metals in livestock and poultry manure, including essential trace elements and elements considered toxic pollutants. Common examples include cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), and mercury (Hg)19. Studies have consistently shown that continued and repeated applications of untreated livestock manure, particularly from poultry and pigs, lead to significant accumulation of these heavy metals in farm soil over time40. This accumulation occurs because the input of heavy metals through manure application often exceeds the rate of removal from the soil through plant uptake, leaching, or other processes. The rate of accumulation may vary depending on factors such as the type of manure used, the amount applied and the specific heavy metals involved40。

A key aspect of heavy metals in the environment is their non-biodegradability, which means they do not break down into less harmful substances and can persist in soil for long periods of time, often up to decades.40. The chemical form or form of heavy metals in feces and soil is a key factor in determining their environmental risk19. How a metal is chemically bound affects its mobility, bioavailability (the extent to which organisms can absorb it), and overall toxicity. For example, heavy metals present in exchangeable or adsorbed forms in soil are generally more readily absorbed by plants and are more susceptible to leaching than metals that are tightly bound in the residual fraction of the soil’s mineral structure. Interestingly, the process of composting manure can change the form of some heavy metals, potentially reducing their bioavailability46. Additionally, soil pH and organic matter content play important roles in controlling the solubility and plant uptake of heavy metals in soils where manure is applied21. In general, lower soil pH tends to increase the solubility and mobility of most heavy metals, making them more readily absorbed by plants and leached into water resources. Conversely, higher organic matter content in soil can bind to heavy metals, potentially reducing their solubility and bioavailability.

Effects on soil health and the environment

The accumulation of heavy metals in agricultural soils due to the application of untreated livestock and poultry manure can have several adverse effects on overall soil health. These metals can negatively impact the diversity and activity of soil microbial communities, which are critical for maintaining healthy soil ecosystems and promoting key processes such as nutrient cycling and organic matter decomposition.20. Specifically, heavy metals disrupt critical biogeochemical cycles by interfering with the function of essential enzymes in soil microorganisms38. This disturbance can lead to imbalances in nutrient availability and reduced rates of organic matter decomposition, ultimately affecting soil fertility.

Another significant concern is the potential leaching of these accumulated heavy metals from the soil where manure was applied into groundwater resources46. This leaching can contaminate drinking water sources and pose risks to human and ecological health, as long-term exposure to heavy metals can cause toxicity even at low concentrations. Finally, as will be discussed in more detail in subsequent chapters, heavy metals that accumulate in soil can be absorbed by crops, causing contamination of food crops and potentially introducing these toxicants into the human food chain.

Pathogen contamination

Untreated livestock and poultry manure can be a significant source of a variety of human pathogens, including various bacteria such as E. coli O157:H7, Salmonella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, and Campylobacter spp., as well as viruses and parasites75. These harmful microorganisms can survive for long periods of time in the manure itself and in the soil to which it was applied.77, causing continued pollution risks. These pathogens are spread to crops in a variety of ways, including direct contact of feces with edible plant parts, contaminated soil splashed onto crops during irrigation or rainfall, the use of irrigation water contaminated with fecal runoff, and the deposition of dust particles carrying pathogens in feces on plant surfaces.77。

Consumption of raw or undercooked produce contaminated with these fecal-borne pathogens poses serious human health risks leading to foodborne illness76. These illnesses range from mild gastrointestinal symptoms, such as fever, diarrhea, nausea, and abdominal pain, to more severe illness, including kidney failure and, in some cases, death. Certain types of crops are considered to have a higher risk of pathogen contamination when using untreated manure. Leafy and root vegetables, the edible parts of which are grown near or in the soil, are particularly susceptible to direct contact and splash contamination24. The risk of pathogen contamination is also affected by factors such as the time interval between the application of untreated manure and crop harvest, and the specific application method of the manure76。

antibiotic residue contamination

Since antibiotics are widely used for therapeutic and preventive purposes in livestock production, antibiotic residues are present in their feces94. These residues are usually excreted in the feces in their raw form or as active metabolites and can persist in the soil to which untreated manure has been applied for varying periods of time, depending on the specific antibiotic compound, the properties of the soil and the prevailing environmental conditions94。

A growing body of research suggests that crops grown in soil contaminated with antibiotic residues in feces can absorb these compounds into their tissues94. The extent of this uptake can vary significantly depending on the type of antibiotic present, the species of plants grown, and the concentration of the antibiotic in the soil98. Studies have detected the presence of various antibiotics, including tetracyclines, tylosin and sulfonamides, in vegetables such as radishes, lettuce and cilantro grown in soil where manure has been applied. Smaller antibiotic molecules are more easily taken up by plants than larger antibiotic molecules, and the specific chemical properties of the antibiotic also affect its ability to be taken up and transported by plants.

The potential risks to human health from consuming crops containing these antibiotic residues are not fully understood, but they raise serious concerns94. These concerns include the potential for allergic reactions in individuals who are sensitive to certain antibiotics. What’s more, the presence of even low levels of antibiotic residues in the food chain is thought to contribute to the growing global problem of antibiotic resistance. Exposure to these residues may exert selective pressure on bacteria in the human gut, potentially leading to the creation and spread of antibiotic-resistant strains, which could have serious implications for the treatment of future bacterial infections.

Heavy metal pollution of agricultural products

As mentioned previously, untreated livestock and poultry manure can be a source of heavy metals that can accumulate in the soil after repeated applications. Crops grown in contaminated soil can then absorb these accumulated heavy metals21. The extent to which plants absorb these heavy metals depends on a variety of factors, including the specific type of heavy metal, the types of plants grown, and soil characteristics such as pH and organic matter content21. For example, research shows that lead tends to accumulate more in the roots of plants, while cadmium may be more easily transported to the stems. Leafy and root vegetables are generally more likely to accumulate certain heavy metals than other types of produce.

Consumption of agricultural products containing high concentrations of heavy metals poses significant risks to human health23. These metals can accumulate in the body over time, causing chronic health problems. Specific health effects depend on the type of heavy metal but may include neurological disorders, kidney damage, developmental problems, and an increased risk of certain cancers. Cadmium and lead are of particular concern due to their known high toxicity and ability to bioaccumulate in the food chain23。

water pollution

The application of untreated livestock and poultry manure without proper management can lead to serious contamination of water resources. In particular, runoff of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from farmland where untreated manure is applied is a major source of surface water contamination.70. During rainfall or snowmelt events, these excess nutrients can be carried away from fields and into nearby streams, rivers and lakes. The main consequence of this nutrient enrichment is eutrophication, the process of excessive algae growth70. The subsequent decomposition of this algal biomass results in severe depletion of dissolved oxygen in the water, creating anoxic conditions, or “dead zones,” that are harmful or fatal to fish and other aquatic life. Phosphorus in particular is an important contributor to eutrophication and can accumulate in soil over time, increasing the risk of runoff70. Often, manure application rates are based on the nitrogen requirements of the crop, which can lead to over-application of phosphorus, further exacerbating the problem72。

Pathogens present in untreated feces can also contaminate surface and groundwater70. Runoff from fields and animal enclosures can carry these disease-causing microorganisms into streams and lakes, directly threatening drinking water sources and recreational water. Penetration of pathogens through the soil profile can also contaminate underground aquifers, which are the source of drinking water for many communities. In addition, the potential for heavy metal and antibiotic residues in untreated feces to contaminate water resources through similar pathways also raises concerns about long-term ecological and human health impacts46。

air pollution

Untreated manure that is not properly managed is also a significant source of air pollution. The decomposition of feces releases ammonia gas (NH3) into the atmosphere70. This ammonia volatilization not only represents a loss of valuable nitrogen that could be available to plants, but also contributes to air pollution and can lead to the formation of acid rain and harmful particulate matter (PM2.5)75. Ammonia emissions are particularly high when manure remains on the soil surface and is not quickly incorporated into the soil75。

Additionally, manure management practices result in the emission of potent greenhouse gases, namely methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O)70. Methane is produced during the anaerobic breakdown of organic matter in manure, a process that is particularly prevalent in liquid manure storage systems such as manure ponds71. Nitrous oxide, on the other hand, is released from the nitrogen present in manure after it is applied to farmland71. Both methane and nitrous oxide have much higher global warming potential than carbon dioxide, so their emissions from manure management are important contributors to climate change.

Finally, animal feedlots and the storage of untreated manure can also result in the release of odor compounds and particulate matter into the air70. These emissions can negatively impact air quality in nearby communities, lead to complaints from residents, and can cause respiratory health problems.

Impact on soil health and biodiversity

Excessive accumulation of salts in the soil due to the application of untreated livestock and poultry manure can adversely affect overall soil health1. High salt concentrations can damage soil structure, reduce water infiltration rates, and negatively impact the population and activity of beneficial soil microorganisms, ultimately leading to a decrease in soil fertility. In areas with severe salinization, only salt-tolerant plants may be suitable for growth, resulting in a reduction in the overall biodiversity of the plant community.11。

Likewise, accumulation of heavy metals in untreated manure in soil can have toxic effects on a wide range of soil organisms, including bacteria, fungi, and invertebrates, which play a key role in maintaining soil health and nutrient cycling19. This toxicity can lead to a reduction in the abundance and diversity of soil organisms, further leading to reduced soil quality and productivity. Finally, the presence of antibiotic residues in fecal-treated soil can lead to the selection and proliferation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in soil microbial communities94. The development of antibiotic resistance in this soil environment has wider ecological implications and may exacerbate the overall challenge of antibiotic resistance in environmental and clinical settings.

Recommended feces disposal methods

To mitigate the risks associated with using livestock and poultry manure as fertilizer, several treatment methods are recommended. Composting is a widely recognized and effective method of manure disposal31. Proper composting involves maintaining a specific temperature range for a prescribed period of time, which effectively reduces pathogen levels and kills weed seeds. It also helps stabilize nutrients in manure, making them more readily available to plants and reducing the risk of nutrient runoff. Maintaining temperatures between 131°F and 170°F for several days, along with regular turning of the pile, is critical to effective pathogen inactivation79。

Anaerobic digestion is another beneficial manure treatment technology58. The process, which involves breaking down organic matter in the absence of oxygen, not only reduces pathogen levels in the manure but also produces biogas, a renewable energy source that can be used for heating or generating electricity. The remaining digestate is a nutrient-rich material that can be used as fertilizer. Anaerobic digestion also has the added benefit of reducing greenhouse gas emissions, especially methane, from manure management. Other treatment methods, such as solid-liquid separation, can be used to manage different components of the manure stream separately, allowing more precise utilization of solids (e.g., for animal bedding) and nutrient-rich liquids (e.g., as fertilizer)58。

Guidelines for Proper Manure Application Rates

Determining the appropriate rate for applying manure to farmland is critical to maximizing its benefits while minimizing environmental risks. Manure applications should always be based on the specific nutrient needs of the crop being grown and the results of regular soil testing1. Excessive application of manure can lead to overapplication of nutrients, especially phosphorus, which can have negative environmental consequences such as water contamination72. Since crops typically require more nitrogen than phosphorus, applying manure to meet nitrogen needs often results in excess phosphorus in the soil.

The amount of manure applied must also be limited to avoid excessive accumulation of salts in the soil, especially in soils known to be sensitive to salinity and in areas with arid or semi-arid climates1. Some guidelines recommend that to prevent salt-related problems, no more than one inch of manure should be applied to home gardens per year137. To further reduce environmental impact, it is recommended that manure be mixed into the soil as soon as possible after application. This practice helps reduce the volatilization of ammonia to the atmosphere and minimizes the risk of nutrient runoff into surface waters75。

The Importance of Regular Soil and Fecal Testing

Regular testing of soil and manure is critical to safe and effective manure management. Soil testing allows farmers and gardeners to monitor the levels of essential nutrients, pH and salinity in the soil9. This information is critical for making informed decisions about how much manure to apply and whether supplemental fertilizer is needed to meet the specific nutrient needs of the crops being grown.

Likewise, it is highly recommended that livestock and poultry manure be tested to determine its precise nutrient content, as well as the level of salt and any harmful heavy metals that may be present14. The nutrient composition of manure varies depending on the animal species, its diet, and how the manure is stored and handled. Understanding the specific composition of manure is critical for accurate nutrient management planning and for assessing any potential risks associated with salt or heavy metal contamination.

Observe pre-harvest intervals for untreated manure

To minimize the risk of pathogen contamination in food crops, it is important to adhere to the recommended pre-harvest intervals when applying untreated livestock and poultry manure76. For crops where the edible parts are not in direct contact with the soil (e.g., tomatoes, peppers), it is generally recommended to wait at least 90 days between manure application and harvest. For crops where the edible parts are in contact with the soil (e.g. root vegetables, leafy vegetables, strawberries), it is generally recommended to wait longer, at least 120 days. These waiting periods allow the levels of potentially harmful pathogens in the soil to be reduced to safer levels. These guidelines are particularly important for organic production systems and ensuring the safety of fresh produce for human consumption.

While the use of untreated livestock and poultry manure as fertilizer has potential benefits in providing nutrients, it also carries significant risks that must be carefully considered and managed. This report highlights the hazards associated with soil salinization, accumulation of heavy metals, and contamination of agricultural products with pathogens, antibiotic residues, and heavy metals, all of which result from the application of untreated animal waste. These problems not only pose a threat to soil health and agricultural productivity, but also have serious environmental impacts, including contamination of water and air resources, and may negatively impact human health through the consumption of contaminated food and water.

To mitigate these risks and promote more sustainable agricultural practices, best management practices for manure handling, handling and application must be adopted. Methods such as composting and anaerobic digestion provide effective ways to reduce pathogens and stabilize nutrients in manure. Adherence to appropriate application rates, based on the specific nutrient needs of the crop and the results of regular soil and manure testing, is critical to preventing overapplication of nutrients and salts. Additionally, respecting the recommended pre-harvest intervals for the application of untreated manure to food crops is critical to minimizing the risk of pathogen contamination and ensuring food safety.

Continued research and education in the field of manure management is critical to further refine our understanding of the risks associated with untreated manure, and to develop and promote safe and beneficial utilization strategies. By implementing these best practices, we can take advantage of the valuable resources present in livestock and poultry manure while protecting the environment and human health in the long term.

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