The climate cost of a grain of fertilizer: The truth about a carbon footprint worse than an airplane

Every step of chemical fertilizers from production to application hides staggering energy consumption and carbon emissions. Ammonia synthesis accounts for 2% of global energy, and carbon emissions are greater than shipping and aviation combined. Without changes to how we fertilize, farmland will become a silent contributor to the climate crisis.

Chemical fertilizers play a vital role in modern agricultural production, providing crops with essential nutrients to maintain and increase food production. These fertilizers mainly contain macroelements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, as well as other trace elements, and have made a huge contribution to ensuring global food security.1. However, the production, transportation and application of chemical fertilizers also have a significant impact on the environment, especially in terms of carbon emissions and energy consumption. This report aims to provide an in-depth analysis of the carbon emissions and energy consumption involved in the entire life cycle of chemical fertilizers, from raw material extraction to final application on farmland, to comprehensively assess their environmental footprint.

The report will cover all key stages of the chemical fertilizer life cycle, including the extraction and processing of raw materials, the manufacturing process of different types of chemical fertilizers (such as nitrogen, phosphate and potassium fertilizers), the transportation and distribution of fertilizers, and finally their application on farmland. Through detailed analysis of energy input and greenhouse gas emissions at each stage, this report aims to reveal the importance of chemical fertilizer production and use in global greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption. Research points out that the carbon emissions of the fertilizer industry account for a considerable proportion of global greenhouse gas emissions, even exceeding the total emissions of global aviation and shipping2. Therefore, a deep understanding of the life cycle carbon emissions of chemical fertilizers is crucial to developing effective emission reduction strategies.

The manufacture of chemical fertilizers is a complex and energy-intensive process, and different types of fertilizers also have significant differences in energy consumption due to differences in their chemical composition and production processes.

• Nitrogen fertilizer

• Ammonia synthesis (Haber-Bosch process) Ammonia is a core intermediate in the production of most nitrogen fertilizers, and its synthesis mainly relies on the Haber-Bosch process. The process involves using an iron-based catalyst to react atmospheric nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia at high temperatures (400-500°C) and high pressures (150-300 bar).4. The main source of hydrogen is usually natural gas, obtained through steam methane reforming, etc.4. Natural gas is not only the raw material for hydrogen, but also the main source of heat energy required for the process, accounting for 70-90% of ammonia production costs.4. High temperature and high pressure reaction conditions are the main reason for the huge energy consumption of the Haber-Bosch process.4. Although the application of catalysts reduces the activation energy of the reaction, it still cannot completely eliminate the need for high energy input.6. On average, a modern ammonia production plant consumes approximately 29.7 million BTUs of energy per ton of nitrogen produced.7, much higher than the theoretical minimum energy consumption5. The energy consumption of ammonia synthesis accounts for approximately 2% of the total global energy consumption4。
• Other nitrogen fertilizer production As an intermediate, ammonia can be further processed to produce urea, ammonium nitrate and many other nitrogen fertilizers.7. Upgrading ammonia into these end products requires additional energy input. For example, approximately 35.9 million BTUs of energy are required to produce one ton of urea, while approximately 31.4 million BTUs of energy are required to produce a urea ammonium nitrate solution7. These energy consumption are higher than the initial ammonia synthesis process, showing a significant energy investment in the nitrogen fertilizer production chain.

• Phosphate fertilizer The production of phosphate fertilizer begins with the mining and processing of phosphate minerals22. The mined phosphate ore undergoes a series of physical treatments such as crushing, screening and concentration to increase the phosphorus content. Phosphate mines then produce phosphoric acid primarily through wet processes, a key step in the manufacture of most phosphate fertilizers such as diammonium phosphate and superphosphate22. Wet processes are more commonly used than thermal processes due to their lower energy requirements25. The energy consumption of phosphate fertilizer is estimated to be approximately 5,600 BTU per pound of phosphorus pentoxide27, although lower than nitrogen fertilizer, it is still an important part of energy consumption in the agricultural sector due to its huge production volume.
• Potash fertilizer The production of potash fertilizer mainly involves the mining and processing of potassium ore28. Potassium minerals usually exist in the form of potassium chloride (KCl) and potassium sulfate (K2SO4). Mining methods include traditional underground mining and solution mining, where solution mining typically requires more energy for steam generation and pumping33. Potash fertilizer energy consumption is estimated to be approximately 4,700 BTU per pound of potassium oxide27, the lowest of the three major macronutrient fertilizers. Canada, as a major potash producer, has lower greenhouse gas emission intensity than the global average.35。

The production process of chemical fertilizers not only consumes a lot of energy, but also produces significant carbon emissions, posing a threat to climate change.

• Direct and indirect carbon emissions from ammonia synthesis Ammonia synthesis is one of the major sources of carbon emissions in chemical fertilizer production. The process directly emits carbon dioxide as a by-product5, at the same time, due to heavy reliance on fossil energy such as natural gas and electricity, significant indirect carbon emissions are also produced5. Ammonia synthesis is estimated to account for approximately 1-2% of global CO2 emissions, equivalent to emissions from the global aviation industry4. Therefore, decarbonizing the ammonia production process is critical to reducing the carbon footprint of fertilizers.
• Carbon emissions from other chemical fertilizer production The production of other chemical fertilizers also involves carbon emissions. Although the production of nitrogen fertilizers such as urea and ammonium nitrate uses ammonia as raw material, its conversion process also produces carbon emissions. The production of phosphate fertilizers is estimated to emit about 1.7 tons of carbon dioxide equivalent per ton43, while the carbon emissions of potash fertilizers are relatively low, about 0.6 tons of carbon dioxide equivalent per ton43. The choice of production technology and energy mix has a significant impact on these emission levels.

The transportation of chemical fertilizers from production plants to fields also consumes energy and generates carbon emissions.

• Transportation methods from production factory to farmland Chemical fertilizers are usually transported from production plants to farmland by trains, trucks and ships. The choice of transportation method depends on factors such as transportation distance, quantity of fertilizer and geographical location.
• Energy consumption and carbon emissions during transportation There are significant differences in the energy efficiency of different modes of transport28. Trains and ships are generally more energy efficient at transporting goods over long distances, while trucks are better suited for short-distance deliveries. The length of transportation distance directly affects overall energy consumption and carbon emissions.28. Nonetheless, fertilizer transportation accounts for only a small portion of total life cycle emissions from synthetic nitrogen fertilizers, estimated at around 2.6%48。

The application of chemical fertilizers on farmland also consumes energy.

• Use of agricultural machinery The fertilization process mainly relies on agricultural machinery, such as tractors and fertilizer spreaders. These machines usually run on diesel fuel.
• Energy requirements of the fertilization process Different fertilizer application methods, such as broadcast, strip and foliar sprays, may vary in their energy efficiency. Developments in precision agriculture technologies, such as variable rate fertilization, have the potential to apply fertilizers precisely according to the actual needs of crops, thereby reducing unnecessary energy consumption47。

Life cycle assessment (LCA) provides a comprehensive framework for assessing the environmental impact of chemical fertilizers from raw material extraction to final application.

• Overall carbon footprint from raw material extraction to final application LCA research shows that nitrogen fertilizers generally have the highest carbon footprint due to their energy-intensive production processes and the release of the potent greenhouse gas nitrous oxide on farmland. Phosphate and potash fertilizers have a relatively low carbon footprint. Overall, the main hot spots of carbon emissions in the life cycle of chemical fertilizers usually lie in the production stage and use stage.
• Life cycle assessment data of different types of chemical fertilizers Different types of nitrogen, phosphate and potassium fertilizers exhibit different carbon footprints in LCA50. These differences are primarily attributable to the energy intensity and greenhouse gas emission characteristics of their production processes.

Typical application rates for different types of chemical fertilizers vary depending on crop type, soil conditions and nutrient requirements49. Based on these application volume data, combined with the aforementioned energy consumption and carbon emission factors, the energy consumption and carbon emissions of different chemical fertilizers in actual application scenarios can be quantified. For example, the typical application rate of urea affects its overall energy consumption and nitrous oxide emissions.

This report analyzes the carbon emissions and energy consumption of chemical fertilizers throughout their life cycle from manufacturing to application. Key findings include the high energy intensity and carbon emissions of ammonia synthesis, and the potential impact on global warming of nitrous oxide released from nitrogen fertilizers on farmland.

To reduce the carbon footprint and energy consumption of chemical fertilizers, the following measures are recommended:

• Improving production efficiency and adopting low-carbon production technologies: Develop and promote more energy-saving ammonia synthesis technology and use renewable energy as an energy source for the production process2。
• Optimize fertilizer use and reduce overapplication: Precisely apply fertilizer based on soil testing and crop needs to avoid overuse, thereby reducing energy waste and greenhouse gas emissions2。
• Promote the use of slow-release fertilizers and nitrification inhibitors: Slow-release fertilizers can release nutrients to crops more efficiently, reducing nutrient losses and nitrous oxide emissions. Nitrification inhibitors slow down the rate of nitrification in the soil, thereby reducing the production of nitrous oxide [2, S_S139, S_S154, S_S172, S_S232, S_S315, S_S317, S_S322, 207, 210, 216, 2。
• Improve fertilizer transport and storage efficiency: Optimize transportation routes and methods to reduce energy consumption and losses during transportation.
• Promote precision fertilization technology in agriculture: Use technologies such as remote sensing and geographic information systems to achieve precise application of fertilizers, improve nutrient utilization, and reduce energy consumption and environmental impact [47, 49。
• Encourage the use of organic fertilizers and green manures as a supplement or alternative: The production process of organic fertilizers and green manures is often more energy-efficient than chemical fertilizers and helps improve soil health59。

Policymakers should develop regulations and incentives to encourage more sustainable methods of fertilizer production and management. Agricultural producers should actively adopt precision fertilization technology and best management practices to improve fertilizer utilization efficiency and reduce environmental impact. Researchers should continue to explore and develop low-carbon fertilizer production technologies and more efficient fertilization strategies to address climate change and food security challenges.

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