長期使用化學肥料雖能提高產量,卻可能導致土壤酸化、養分失衡與重金屬累積,不僅危及作物健康,也威脅人類食安與環境永續。
1. 導言
化學肥料在現代農業中扮演著舉足輕重的角色,其主要功能在於顯著提升農作物產量,以滿足全球日益增長的糧食需求1。研究顯示,化學肥料的使用與農作物產量的顯著提升之間存在直接關聯1。然而,隨著時間的推移,科學界和公眾日益關注長期且過度施用這些合成物質所可能導致的環境和人類健康問題1。當前,人們的關注點已從單純追求產量轉向兼顧農業的可持續性和食品的安全性。本報告旨在基於學術研究和可信的網站內容(排除新聞報導、私人公司資訊及中文資料),深入分析某些化學肥料如何透過引起土壤pH值下降、養分失衡以及重金屬的釋放與累積等多重途徑,最終對農作物和人類健康造成潛在危害。
2. 化學肥料對土壤的酸化效應
長期且頻繁地施用某些特定的化學肥料,尤其是那些含氮量高的肥料,如銨態氮肥(例如硫酸銨、磷酸一銨)和尿素,是導致農業生態系統中土壤酸化的主要原因之一1。土壤酸化是一個複雜的過程,其中硝化作用扮演著關鍵角色25。硝化作用是指土壤微生物,主要是硝化細菌,將銨離子(NH₄⁺)逐步氧化為亞硝酸鹽(NO₂⁻)和硝酸鹽(NO₃⁻)的過程。值得注意的是,這兩步氧化反應都會釋放出氫離子(H⁺)到土壤中,從而直接導致土壤pH值的降低,進而造成土壤酸化。例如,磷酸二銨(DAP)的硝化作用,每分子會釋放出三個氫離子,清晰地闡釋了此類肥料酸化土壤的化學基礎25。
不同種類的氮肥具有不同的酸化潛力26。銨態氮肥由於其直接提供銨離子進行硝化作用,因此表現出最高的酸化潛力26。尿素雖然在初期轉化為銨的過程中會消耗一個氫離子,但隨後形成的銨經過硝化作用仍然會導致土壤酸化,其酸化程度與其他銨態氮肥相似26。與之形成對比的是,硝酸態氮肥對土壤pH值的影響極小甚至沒有,因為植物在吸收硝酸根離子時會釋放出氫氧根離子,有助於中和土壤酸性26。
長期田間試驗和薈萃分析提供了令人信服的證據,表明長期施用氮肥會導致土壤pH值的顯著下降16。一項對中國115項研究(時間跨度為1980年至2024年)進行的薈萃分析發現,長期施用氮肥平均導致土壤pH值下降15.27%,這突顯了這個問題的廣泛性和嚴重性19。研究還表明,過量施用氮肥會通過改變土壤pH值,導致細菌操作分類單元(OTUs)數量顯著減少16。
相較於氮肥,磷肥對土壤酸度的影響通常較小,這主要是因為磷肥的施用量通常較低,且每單位磷的酸化能力也較低26。然而,磷酸是酸化能力最強的磷肥26,並且一些長期的研究也觀察到,長期施用磷肥確實會導致土壤pH值的下降。
表 1:常見氮肥的酸化潛力
肥料種類 |
化學式 |
硝酸鹽被植物吸收時的石灰當量 (公斤石灰/公斤氮) |
硝酸鹽淋溶時的石灰當量 (公斤石灰/公斤氮) |
尿素 |
CO(NH₂)₂ |
0 |
3.6 |
硫酸銨 |
(NH₄)₂SO₄ |
3.6 |
7.1 |
硝酸銨 |
NH₄NO₃ |
0 |
3.6 |
硝酸鈉 |
NaNO₃ |
-3.6 |
0 |
磷酸一銨 |
NH₄H₂PO₄ |
7.1 (pH < 6.7) / 10.7 (pH > 7.7) |
10.7 (pH < 6.7) / 14.3 (pH > 7.7) |
磷酸二銨 |
(NH₄)₂HPO₄ |
3.6 (pH < 7.2) / 7.1 (pH > 7.2) |
7.1 (pH < 7.2) / 10.7 (pH > 7.2) |
液態氨 |
NH₃ |
0 |
3.6 |
硝酸銨鈣 |
5Ca(NO₃)₂·NH₄NO₃·10H₂O |
-0.5 |
3.1 |
硝酸鉀 |
KNO₃ |
-2.6 |
1.0 |
磷酸二氫鉀 |
KH₂PO₄ |
-1.3 |
2.3 |
過磷酸鈣 |
Ca(H₂PO₄)₂·H₂O |
0 |
0 |
三重過磷酸鈣 |
Ca(H₂PO₄)₂ |
0 |
0 |
3. 土壤酸化導致的養分失衡
土壤pH值對於植物吸收必需養分的有效性至關重要35。即使肥料施用充足,如果土壤pH值不在植物吸收養分的最佳範圍內,植物也可能遭受養分缺乏。長期施用氮肥導致的低土壤pH值(<6.0)會顯著降低磷(P)的有效性36。在酸性條件下,磷容易與土壤中的鋁和鐵離子反應,形成不溶性化合物(磷酸鋁和磷酸鐵),有效地將磷固定起來,阻止植物根系的吸收36。磷的有效性通常在pH值6.5至7.5之間達到最佳,偏離此範圍會導致磷的吸收減少36。
同樣地,低pH值也會影響鉀(K)的有效性36。在酸性土壤中,高濃度的氫離子(H⁺)和可溶性鋁離子(Al)會與帶正電荷的鉀離子(K⁺)競爭土壤陽離子交換容量(CEC)上的結合位點36。這種競爭可能導致鉀從土壤顆粒中被置換到土壤溶液中,使其更容易被淋失,尤其是在沙質或低CEC的土壤中36。鉀的有效性通常在pH值高於6.0時達到最高36。
土壤酸度對微量元素的有效性也產生複雜的影響36。雖然某些必需微量元素(如鐵、錳、鋅和銅)在較低的土壤pH值下溶解度通常會增加,可能使其更容易被植物吸收,但這種增加的有效性有時會達到毒性水平,擾亂植物體內整體養分的平衡36。一般而言,整體養分有效性的最佳pH範圍通常為微酸性至中性(約6.0至7.0),顯著偏離此範圍都可能導致養分失衡36。總而言之,化學肥料引起的土壤酸化從根本上擾亂了土壤中養分有效性的精細平衡,導致植物生長所需的關鍵大量養分(如磷和鉀)的缺乏,以及某些微量元素可能達到毒性水平,最終影響植物的健康和生產力20。
4. 化學肥料引起的重金屬活化與累積
化學肥料,尤其是磷肥,被認為是農業土壤中重金屬污染的重要來源之一2。磷肥的主要原料磷礦石天然含有微量的多種重金屬,包括鎘(Cd)、鉛(Pb)和砷(As)等雜質39。研究數據顯示,不同地區的磷肥中重金屬的平均含量存在差異39。例如,歐洲磷肥的平均鎘含量約為7.4毫克/公斤39。
隨著磷肥的不斷施用,這些微量的重金屬會逐漸累積在土壤中45。如果通過施肥輸入土壤的重金屬量超過通過作物吸收、淋溶(許多重金屬的淋溶有限)、侵蝕或其他損失途徑的輸出量,那麼這些污染物就會在土壤中淨累積45。
值得注意的是,土壤pH值(通常因長期使用氮肥而降低,如第二節所述)在影響土壤中重金屬的移動性和生物有效性方面起著至關重要的作用40。一般而言,許多重金屬(包括鎘和鉛這兩種最令人擔憂的污染物)的溶解度和移動性在酸性土壤條件下會增加40。較低的pH值有助於將吸附在土壤顆粒(如黏土礦物、有機質)上的重金屬釋放到土壤溶液中40。土壤溶液中重金屬濃度的增加直接提高了植物根系吸收這些重金屬的可能性。
此外,氮肥也可能間接影響重金屬的吸收47。雖然氮肥本身不是重金屬的直接來源,但其降低土壤pH值的作用(如前所述)會間接增強土壤中已存在的重金屬(通常源於磷肥或其他來源)的活化和植物吸收。
表 2:磷肥中重金屬的平均含量(示例數據)
重金屬 |
歐洲磷肥平均含量 (毫克/公斤) |
美國磷肥含量範圍 (毫克/公斤) |
巴西磷肥含量範圍 (毫克/公斤) |
中國磷肥含量範圍 (毫克/公斤) |
鎘 |
7.4 |
5 – 41 |
0.14 – 51 |
未檢出 – 27 |
鉻 |
90 |
– |
– |
– |
鋅 |
166 |
– |
– |
– |
鎳 |
15 |
– |
– |
– |
鉛 |
2.9 |
– |
– |
– |
5. 重金屬污染土壤對農作物健康和產量的影響
土壤中重金屬的累積,特別是由於肥料使用和土壤酸化而加劇的累積,對農作物的健康、發育和產量產生顯著的負面影響39。
鎘(Cd)一旦被植物吸收(主要通過根部),就會擾亂多種重要的生理過程50。這包括干擾氮代謝,導致蛋白質合成減少和整體生長受到抑制50。鎘的累積還可能導致植物體內其他必需微量元素的吸收和分配失衡50。此外,暴露於鎘通常會引發植物體內活性氧(ROS)的過量產生,導致氧化壓力以及對植物細胞和組織的損害,最終降低生物量和產量。
鉛(Pb)主要通過植物根部吸收,但其向地上部分(莖、葉、果實)的轉運通常受到限制46。然而,即使轉運有限,鉛在根部的累積也會阻礙根的生長和功能,影響植物吸收水分和其他養分的能力46。鉛還可能干擾光合作用等關鍵的植物過程,並對土壤微生物群落產生負面影響,而土壤微生物群落對於養分循環至關重要,從而間接影響植物的健康和生產力46。
砷(As)污染土壤會嚴重抑制植物的生長和發育51。研究表明,暴露於砷會顯著縮短幼苗的根和莖的長度,其中根的生長通常受到的影響更嚴重51。砷還可能導致植物根部的解剖結構發生變化,例如根毛減少或完全消失,而根毛對於水分和養分的吸收至關重要51。此外,砷還會損害根部的表皮細胞和皮層細胞,進一步損害其功能51。
總體而言,重金屬會干擾植物的必需生理過程,例如光合作用和養分吸收39。
6. 食用受影響土壤中種植的農作物對人體健康的潛在風險
食用在重金屬污染的土壤中種植的農作物對人體健康構成嚴重的風險,這主要是由於重金屬的生物累積和毒性2。生物累積是指重金屬在生物體內隨著時間的推移而累積的過程,而生物放大作用則是指重金屬在食物鏈中濃度逐級增加的現象40。
長期低劑量地通過食物攝入鎘(Cd)會導致嚴重的健康問題,主要影響腎臟和骨骼。鎘會損害腎功能,增加患慢性腎臟疾病的風險,並干擾鈣代謝,導致骨質疏鬆和骨骼脆弱性增加。此外,鎘暴露還與某些癌症的風險增加有關。
鉛(Pb)暴露會對健康產生廣泛的負面影響,尤其令人擔憂的是對兒童的影響46。即使是低水平的鉛暴露也會對兒童造成不可逆轉的神經系統損傷,影響他們的學習能力、行為、注意力以及整體認知發展52。在成人中,鉛暴露可能導致腎功能障礙、高血壓、貧血和生殖問題。鉛還可以通過胎盤,對胎兒發育造成風險。
砷(As)是一種已知的人類致癌物,無論是有機砷還是無機砷都存在健康風險51。長期通過受污染的食物(包括在砷污染土壤中種植的稻米)和水暴露於砷,可能導致各種健康問題,包括皮膚病變、心血管疾病、多種癌症(例如肺癌、膀胱癌、皮膚癌)、神經系統疾病和糖尿病51。
此外,農作物中的養分失衡(可能因與肥料使用相關的土壤問題而加劇)也可能通過降低食物的營養價值,對人體健康產生間接的負面影響。
7. 結論與建議
本報告的分析表明,長期使用某些化學肥料會導致土壤酸化、養分失衡以及重金屬的釋放和累積,進而對農作物健康和人類健康構成威脅。為減輕這些負面影響,建議採取以下更可持續的農業實踐:
- 根據土壤測試和植物需求,謹慎且均衡地使用化學肥料,避免過度施肥58。
- 在農業上可行的情況下,優先使用硝酸態氮肥而非銨態或尿素態氮肥,以最大程度地減少土壤酸化。
- 仔細選擇重金屬含量低的磷肥,並定期監測肥料和土壤中重金屬的含量60。
- 將有機肥料(如糞便、堆肥、生物炭)和土壤改良劑納入農業系統,以改善土壤健康,增強其對pH值變化的緩衝能力,並可能降低重金屬的生物有效性5。強調有機質對土壤結構和微生物多樣性的益處13。
- 推廣採用可持續的農業實踐,如輪作和綠肥,以改善土壤結構,增強養分循環,並減少對合成肥料的依賴11。
- 考慮採用溶磷性生物肥料作為傳統磷肥更可持續的替代品,以減少重金屬的投入並通過天然微生物過程提高磷的有效性13。
- 呼籲繼續並擴大對不同施肥方式長期影響的研究,包括對土壤健康、作物品質(包括營養成分和重金屬累積)以及最終對人類健康結果的影響。
- 建議制定和嚴格執行更嚴格的國家和國際法規,以規範化學肥料中重金屬的允許含量,從而保護農業土壤和食品供應。
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