「永久化學物」警鐘大作!PFAS對健康與環境的隱形威脅全面揭露

PFAS為難以分解的「永久性化學物」,廣泛存在於工業與生活用品中,正悄悄汙染水資源並累積於人體,引發癌症、免疫異常等健康風險。各國正展開政策與科技的雙重應對。

1. 導論:認識「永久性化學物」——PFAS概述

全氟烷基和多氟烷基物質(PFAS)是一個龐大且多樣化的合成化學物質群體,自20世紀中期以來,由於其獨特的性質而被廣泛應用於工業和消費產品中,這些獨特性質包括耐水、耐油和耐熱性 1。PFAS最主要的特徵在於其強大的碳-氟鍵,這是所有有機化學中最堅固的單鍵之一,這使得它們極難在環境和生物體內降解,因此被稱為「永久性化學物」2。這種非凡的穩定性既是PFAS在工業上的優勢,也是其對環境造成長期污染並對健康構成潛在風險的主要原因。

PFAS的應用範圍極其廣泛,涵蓋了眾多領域,包括製造業中作為防水、防油和防火塗層、乳化劑和表面活性劑,以及在非黏性炊具、食品包裝和防污紡織品等消費產品中的應用 1。然而,由於其持久性、生物累積性以及對生態系統和人類健康的潛在毒性,全球對PFAS的擔憂日益增加 2。本報告旨在深入分析PFAS的環境持久性、在水資源中的污染途徑、淨化挑戰、與慢性疾病的關聯,以及科學界和政策制定者為應對這些風險所採取的措施,以期全面評估PFAS對環境與健康的潛在危害。

2. PFAS的持久本質:環境持久性與生物累積性

PFAS之所以具有高度的持久性,主要是因為其化學結構中含有全氟烷基部分。全氟烷基部分對環境和代謝降解具有極強的抵抗力,這歸因於碳-氟鍵的強度、同一碳原子上多個碳-氟鍵的存在以及氟的強吸電子效應 4。這種極端的穩定性意味著絕大多數PFAS不是無法降解,就是最終轉化為仍然是PFAS的穩定終端產物。持續釋放這些高度持久性的化學物質必然導致廣泛、長期且不斷增加的污染 2。

生物累積是指PFAS在生物體內隨著時間推移而累積的過程,因為它們不容易被代謝或排出體外 5。研究表明,不同物種在生物累積PFAS的能力上存在顯著差異,這種差異受到物種、體型、棲息地和攝食習性等多種生態特徵的影響 9。例如,一項對北大西洋食物網的研究發現,底棲雜食動物和遠洋肉食動物體內的PFAS濃度最高 9。此外,生物放大作用也令人擔憂,即PFAS在食物鏈中隨著營養層級的升高而濃度增加,這對頂級掠食者(包括人類)構成了潛在風險 2。值得注意的是,雖然一些傳統的長鏈PFAS的生產和使用已在許多國家被逐步淘汰,但作為替代品的短鏈PFAS以及其他新型PFAS的生物累積潛力和長期影響仍然很大程度上未知 8。

3. 水資源污染途徑:追蹤PFAS污染的來源

PFAS可以通過多種人為途徑污染水資源 5。工業排放是重要的污染源之一,生產或使用PFAS的工廠,如電鍍、電子和紡織品製造廠,可能會將這些化學物質排放到周圍的水域中 6。另一主要來源是水成膜泡沫(AFFF),這種泡沫廣泛應用於機場、軍事基地和消防訓練場所,用於撲滅易燃液體火災 5。此外,含有PFAS的廢棄物最終會進入垃圾掩埋場,而雨水滲透垃圾層形成的滲濾液可能會將PFAS帶入地下水和地表水 7。即使是經過處理的廢水,由於傳統的廢水處理廠通常沒有去除PFAS的設備,也可能成為PFAS進入環境的途徑 7。在農業方面,使用含有PFAS的污水污泥作為肥料也可能污染土壤,進而污染地下水和地表水 5。大氣沉降,包括揮發性PFAS的長距離傳輸,也是PFAS污染的一個途徑 5。最後,各類含有PFAS的消費產品在使用或處置過程中也可能將這些化學物質釋放到環境中 1。

研究普遍認為,飲用受污染的水是人類接觸PFAS的主要途徑 6。值得關注的是,居住在有較高比例的黑人和西班牙裔/拉丁裔居民社區的人們,其供水系統中更有可能含有有害水平的PFAS,這與PFAS污染源(如主要製造商、機場、軍事基地、廢水處理廠和垃圾掩埋場)不成比例地分佈在服務這些社區的流域附近有關 59。地下水和地表下土壤層也可能是PFAS積累的熱點區域,並可能進一步污染飲用水源 6。

4. 淨化挑戰:從水資源中去除PFAS的難題

由於PFAS獨特的化學性質,傳統的水處理方法在去除這些物質方面通常效率不高 6。例如,在全規模飲用水處理廠中常用的混凝、絮凝、過濾、氯化和臭氧化等工藝,對於去除PFAS往往效果有限。這是因為PFAS具有高度的化學穩定性和水溶性,使得它們能夠輕易地通過這些傳統的處理系統。

目前,主要有三種被認為對去除飲用水中PFAS有效的技術 42

  • 粒狀活性碳(GAC)吸附: GAC是一種多孔材料,可以通過吸附作用去除水中的PFAS。對於較長鏈的PFAS,GAC通常更有效,但對於較短鏈的PFAS,其去除效率可能較低。此外,水中其他有機物的存在也可能降低GAC的吸附效率 67
  • 離子交換樹脂(IX): IX樹脂帶有電荷,可以吸引並去除帶相反電荷的PFAS離子。與GAC相比,IX樹脂可能對短鏈PFAS有更好的去除效果,並且具有更高的吸附容量。然而,IX樹脂在使用後需要進行處理,或者通過再生去除吸附的PFAS,但再生過程會產生高濃度的PFAS廢水 67
  • 反滲透(RO): RO是一種利用高壓將水通過半透膜的技術,可以有效去除包括短鏈和長鏈PFAS在內的各種污染物。RO的去除率很高,但其能耗也較高,並且會產生需要進一步處理的濃縮廢水流 67

除了這些成熟的技術外,還有一些正在開發中的新興技術,如電化學氧化、等離子體技術、光催化、聲化學降解、超臨界水氧化、電子束技術和泡沫分離等 5。這些技術有望提供更可持續和更徹底的PFAS去除或破壞方法,但許多技術仍處於實驗室或試驗階段,在擴大規模、成本效益和副產物形成方面仍面臨挑戰。值得注意的是,無論採用哪種去除技術,處理產生的富含PFAS的廢棄物(如廢棄的活性炭、離子交換樹脂或反滲透濃縮液)都是一個重要的挑戰,需要安全有效的處置或銷毀方法 6

5. 健康影響:流行病學證據揭示PFAS暴露與慢性疾病的關聯

越來越多的流行病學研究表明,PFAS暴露與人類的各種不良健康後果之間存在關聯 2。這些關聯包括增加某些癌症的風險,如腎癌、睾丸癌、前列腺癌,以及可能與卵巢癌和甲狀腺癌有關 2。關於前列腺癌,一項統合分析發現PFOS暴露與其風險呈正相關 96。對於卵巢癌,混合PFAS暴露與風險增加有關 96。然而,關於PFAS暴露與乳腺癌風險的關聯,現有的流行病學證據尚不充分,研究結果存在異質性 97。關於PFAS暴露與甲狀腺癌的關聯,統合分析的結果也不顯著,表明需要更多縱向研究來闡明其作用 99。

PFAS暴露還與兒童的免疫系統功能受損有關,包括對某些疫苗的抗體反應降低以及感染風險增加 7。此外,研究表明,孕期暴露於PFAS可能對兒童的神經發育產生不利影響,例如可能影響智商和執行功能 7。其他潛在的健康影響包括干擾人體天然激素、增加膽固醇水平、改變肝酶以及與妊娠期高血壓和先兆子癇相關 7。然而,由於PFAS種類繁多、暴露途徑和水平各異以及研究重點不同,確定特定PFAS與特定健康影響之間的精確關係仍然面臨挑戰 7。

6. 科學與政策的雙重應對:應對PFAS水污染的相關政策與法規

各國政府和國際組織正在採取越來越多的措施來應對PFAS污染問題 6。美國環境保護署(EPA)在2024年4月發布了首個具有法律約束力的國家飲用水標準,限制六種PFAS的含量 30。這些標準包括針對PFOA和PFOS的4.0 ppt(萬億分率)的最高污染物含量(MCL),以及針對PFHxS、PFNA和HFPO-DA(通常稱為GenX化學品)的10 ppt的MCL。此外,EPA還針對含有至少兩種PFAS(PFHxS、PFNA、HFPO-DA和PFBS)的混合物設定了危害指數MCL為1。

表 1:美國環保署最終國家飲用水中 PFAS 最高污染物含量

化合物

最終 MCLG (ppt)

最終 MCL (ppt)

全氟辛酸 (PFOA)

4.0

全氟辛烷磺酸 (PFOS)

4.0

全氟己烷磺酸 (PFHxS)

10

10

全氟壬酸 (PFNA)

10

10

六氟丙烯氧化物二聚酸 (HFPO-DA) (GenX 化學品)

10

10

混合物 (PFHxS, PFNA, HFPO-DA, PFBS) (危害指數)

1

1

在歐盟,也正在加強對PFAS的監管,包括修訂後的飲用水指令設定了飲用水中20種個別PFAS總和的限值,以及所有PFAS總濃度的限值 30。一些歐盟國家,如丹麥、瑞典和德國,已採取比歐盟更嚴格的措施 30。此外,包括美國和歐盟在內的許多國家都參與了《關於持久性有機污染物的斯德哥爾摩公約》,該公約旨在限制包括某些PFAS在內的有害化學物質的生產和使用 35。在美國,一些州也在積極制定自己的飲用水標準和產品禁令 32。

科學研究在為風險評估、健康建議和政策制定提供資訊方面發揮著至關重要的作用。政府機構(如美國環保署、疾病控制與預防中心/毒物與疾病登記署、國家環境健康科學研究所)和學術機構都在積極進行PFAS的研究,以更好地理解其來源、環境歸趨、毒性和有效的修復技術 1。然而,由於PFAS種類繁多,暴露途徑複雜,以及對其長期影響的理解仍在不斷發展,監管工作仍然面臨挑戰。

7. 風險綜合分析:PFAS的總體潛在危害

綜合以上研究結果,PFAS對生態環境和人類健康構成顯著的潛在風險。其環境持久性導致了廣泛且持續的污染,而生物累積性則使得這些化學物質在食物鏈中富集,最終可能對頂級消費者(包括人類)造成危害。PFAS污染水資源的途徑多樣,從工業排放到消費品使用,使得許多地區的飲用水都面臨污染的威脅。儘管存在一些用於去除水中PFAS的淨化技術,但這些技術在有效性、成本和廢棄物管理方面都存在局限性。流行病學證據表明,PFAS暴露與多種慢性疾病的風險增加有關,包括某些癌症、免疫系統疾病和發育問題。生態風險也十分顯著,PFAS已被證明對水生生物產生毒性,並可能通過食物網對整個生態系統產生連鎖反應 6。由於PFAS的持久性,即使停止使用,現有的污染也將持續存在很長時間,對環境和人類健康構成長期的威脅。

8. 科學與政策的協同作用:應對PFAS挑戰

應對PFAS帶來的挑戰需要科學與政策之間的緊密合作。持續的科學研究對於深入理解PFAS的來源、歸趨、毒性以及開發有效的檢測、去除和破壞技術至關重要 1。科學研究的發現應為政府機構和國際組織制定基於健康的指導方針和監管標準提供依據 6。政策在限制PFAS的使用和排放、設定水質標準以及資助研究和修復工作方面發揮著關鍵作用 6。鑑於PFAS種類繁多,需要制定全面的策略,不僅要針對特定的PFAS,還要考慮整個化學物質類別,以防止產生可替代的但同樣有害的物質。國際合作對於應對這一全球性問題也至關重要。

9. 結論:為關注PFAS的未來規劃方向

本報告總結了PFAS對環境和人類健康構成的重大風險。這些「永久性化學物」的持久性、廣泛存在以及當前技術在修復方面的局限性,使得應對PFAS污染成為一項長期而複雜的挑戰。減輕這些風險需要採取多方面的綜合方法,包括持續深入的科學研究、有效且能適應新知識的政策制定、修復技術的創新以及國際合作。只有通過這些協同努力,我們才能更好地保護人類健康和環境免受PFAS污染的長期威脅。

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